Ultrastructural Changes Caused by Snf7 RNAi in Larval Enterocytes of Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte)

The high sensitivity to oral RNA interference (RNAi) of western corn rootworm (WCR, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte) provides a novel tool for pest control. Previous studies have shown that RNAi of DvSnf7, an essential cellular component of endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT), caused deficiencies in protein de-ubiquitination and autophagy, leading to WCR death. Here we investigated the detailed mechanism leading to larval death by analyzing the ultrastructural changes in midgut enterocytes of WCR treated with double-stranded RNA (ds-DvSnf7). The progressive phases of pathological symptoms caused by DvSnf7-RNAi in enterocytes include: 1) the appearance of irregularly shaped macroautophagic complexes consisting of relatively large lysosomes and multi-lamellar bodies, indicative of failure in autolysosome formation; 2) cell sloughing and loss of apical microvilli, and eventually, 3) massive loss of cellular contents indicating loss of membrane integrity. These data suggest that the critical functions of Snf7 in insect midgut cells demonstrated by the ultrastructural changes in DvSnf7 larval enterocytes underlies the conserved essential function of the ESCRT pathway in autophagy and membrane stability in other organisms.     

Characterizing the Mechanism of Action of Double-Stranded RNA Activity against Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte)

RNA interference (RNAi) has previously been shown to be effective in western corn rootworm (WCR, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) larvae via oral delivery of synthetic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in an artificial diet bioassay, as well as by ingestion of transgenic corn plant tissues engineered to express dsRNA. Although the RNAi machinery components appear to be conserved in Coleopteran insects, the key steps in this process have not been reported for WCR. Here we characterized the sequence of events that result in mortality after ingestion of a dsRNA designed against WCR larvae. We selected the Snf7 ortholog (DvSnf7) as the target mRNA, which encodes an essential protein involved in intracellular trafficking. Our results showed that dsRNAs greater than or equal to approximately 60 base-pairs (bp) are required for biological activity in artificial diet bioassays. Additionally, 240 bp dsRNAs containing a single 21 bp match to the target sequence were also efficacious, whereas 21 bp short interfering (si) RNAs matching the target sequence were not. This result was further investigated in WCR midgut tissues: uptake of 240 bp dsRNA was evident in WCR midgut cells while a 21 bp siRNA was not, supporting the size-activity relationship established in diet bioassays. DvSnf7 suppression was observed in a time-dependent manner with suppression at the mRNA level preceding suppression at the protein level when a 240 bp dsRNA was fed to WCR larvae. DvSnf7 suppression was shown to spread to tissues beyond the midgut within 24 h after dsRNA ingestion. These events (dsRNA uptake, target mRNA and protein suppression, systemic spreading, growth inhibition and eventual mortality) comprise the overall mechanism of action by which DvSnf7 dsRNA affects WCR via oral delivery and provides insights as to how targeted dsRNAs in general are active against insects.     

Characterization of the spectrum of insecticidal activity of a double-stranded RNA with targeted activity against Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte)

The sequence specificity of the endogenous RNA interference pathway allows targeted suppression of genes essential for insect survival and enables the development of durable and efficacious insecticidal products having a low likelihood to adversely impact non-target organisms. The spectrum of insecticidal activity of a 240 nucleotide (nt) dsRNA targeting the Snf7 ortholog in Western Corn Rootworm (WCR; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera) was characterized by selecting and testing insects based upon their phylogenetic relatedness to WCR. Insect species, representing 10 families and 4 Orders, were evaluated in subchronic or chronic diet bioassays that measured potential lethal and sublethal effects. When a specific species could not be tested in diet bioassays, the ortholog to the WCR Snf7 gene (DvSnf7) was cloned and corresponding dsRNAs were tested against WCR and Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata); model systems known to be sensitive to ingested dsRNA. Bioassay results demonstrate that the spectrum of activity for DvSnf7 is narrow and activity is only evident in a subset of beetles within the Galerucinae subfamily of Chrysomelidae (>90 % identity with WCR Snf7 240 nt). This approach allowed for evaluating the relationship between minimum shared nt sequence length and activity. A shared sequence length of ≥21 nt was required for efficacy against WCR (containing 221 potential 21-nt matches) and all active orthologs contained at least three 21 nt matches. These results also suggest that WCR resistance to DvSnf7 dsRNA due to single nucleotide polymorphisms in the target sequence of 240 nt is highly unlikely.     

Systemic RNAi in western corn rootworm,Diabrotica virgifera virgifera,does not involve transitive pathways

Western corn rootworm (WCR, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) is highly sensitive to orally delivered double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNAi in WCR is systemic and spreads throughout the insect body. This raises the question whether transitive RNAi is a mechanism that functions in WCR to amplify the RNAi response via production of secondary siRNA. Secondary siRNA production is achieved through RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) activity in other eukaryotic organisms, but RdRP has not been identified in WCR and any other insects. This study visualized the spread of the RNAi‐mediated knockdown of Dv v‐ATPase C mRNA throughout the WCR gut and other tissues using high‐sensitivity branched DNA in situ hybridization. Furthermore, we did not detect either secondary siRNA production or transitive RNAi in WCR through siRNA sequence profile analysis. Nucleotide mismatched sequences introduced into either the sense or antisense strand of v‐ATPase C dsRNAs were maintained in siRNAs derived from WCR fed with the mismatched dsRNAs in a strand specific manner. The distribution of all siRNAs was restricted to within the original target sequence regions, which may indicate the lack of new dsRNA synthesis leading to production of secondary siRNA. Thus, the systemic spread of RNAi in WCR may be derived from the original dsRNA molecules taken up from the gut lumen. These results indicate that the initial dsRNA dose is important for a lethal systemic RNAi response in WCR and have implications in developing effective dsRNA traits to control WCR and in resistance management to prolong the durability of RNAi trait technology.     

Control of coleopteran insect pests through RNA interference

Commercial biotechnology solutions for controlling lepidopteran and coleopteran insect pests on crops depend on the expression of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal proteins, most of which permeabilize the membranes of gut epithelial cells of susceptible insects. However, insect control strategies involving a different mode of action would be valuable for managing the emergence of insect resistance. Toward this end, we demonstrate that ingestion of double-stranded (ds)RNAs supplied in an artificial diet triggers RNA interference in several coleopteran species, most notably the western corn rootworm (WCR) Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. This may result in larval stunting and mortality. Transgenic corn plants engineered to express WCR dsRNAs show a significant reduction in WCR feeding damage in a growth chamber assay, suggesting that the RNAi pathway can be exploited to control insect pests via in planta expression of a dsRNA.     

Novel Bacillus thuringiensis binary insecticidal crystal proteins active on western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte

A new family of insecticidal crystal proteins was discovered by screening sporulated Bacillus thuringiensis cultures for oral activity against western corn rootworm (WCR) larvae. B. thuringiensis isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have WCR insecticidal activity attributable to parasporal inclusion bodies containing proteins with molecular masses of ca. 14 and 44 kDa. The genes encoding these polypeptides reside in apparent operons, and the 14-kDa protein open reading frame (ORF) precedes the 44-kDa protein ORF. Mutagenesis of either gene in the apparent operons dramatically reduced insecticidal activity of the corresponding recombinant B. thuringiensis strain. Bioassays performed with separately expressed, biochemically purified 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides also demonstrated that both proteins are required for WCR mortality. Sequence comparisons with other known B. thuringiensis insecticidal proteins failed to reveal homology with previously described Cry, Cyt, or Vip proteins. However, there is evidence that the 44-kDa polypeptide and the 41.9- and 51.4-kDa binary dipteran insecticidal proteins from Bacillus sphaericus are evolutionarily related. The 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides from isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have been designated Cry34Aa1, Cry34Ab1, and Cry34Ac1, respectively, and the 44-kDa polypeptides from these isolates have been designated Cry35Aa1, Cry35Ab1, and Cry35Ac1, respectively.     

Novel Bacillus thuringiensis Binary Insecticidal Crystal Proteins Active on Western Corn Rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte

A new family of insecticidal crystal proteins was discovered by screening sporulated Bacillus thuringiensis cultures for oral activity against western corn rootworm (WCR) larvae. B. thuringiensis isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have WCR insecticidal activity attributable to parasporal inclusion bodies containing proteins with molecular masses of ca. 14 and 44 kDa. The genes encoding these polypeptides reside in apparent operons, and the 14-kDa protein open reading frame (ORF) precedes the 44-kDa protein ORF. Mutagenesis of either gene in the apparent operons dramatically reduced insecticidal activity of the corresponding recombinant B. thuringiensis strain. Bioassays performed with separately expressed, biochemically purified 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides also demonstrated that both proteins are required for WCR mortality. Sequence comparisons with other known B. thuringiensis insecticidal proteins failed to reveal homology with previously described Cry, Cyt, or Vip proteins. However, there is evidence that the 44-kDa polypeptide and the 41.9- and 51.4-kDa binary dipteran insecticidal proteins from Bacillus sphaericus are evolutionarily related. The 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides from isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have been designated Cry34Aa1, Cry34Ab1, and Cry34Ac1, respectively, and the 44-kDa polypeptides from these isolates have been designated Cry35Aa1, Cry35Ab1, and Cry35Ac1, respectively.     

Effective control method of larvae of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Leconte

Larvae of WCR are feeding on the roots of corn while plants fall down. The egg hatching is continuous and soil insecticides are not effective to kill larvae. Unfortunately the recent control methods while we incorporate disinfectors Into the soil under seeding are not able to give enough effect on larvae of WCR under the whole period of larval development. We use to saw corn in the middle of April but eggs hatching start in the middle of May. The effectiveness of insecticides takes about one month so they are not able to protect plants from larvae are feeding on roots (Luckman et al., 1974 and Luckmann et al., 1975). They cause yield losses or in case of plant fall we can not harvest the corn. We have tested a material in greenhouse screening and field trips that is able to absorb insecticides and bind them into its body. This material is able to emit the agents continuously under the vegetation and we can protect our plants against the damages of WCR larvae. Our results shows that the material is able to elongate the effectiveness of the pesticides over 60 days and able to push the number of larvae under the economical threshold.     

Shaping development with ESCRTs

Originally identified for their involvement in endosomal sorting and multivesicular endosome (MVE) biogenesis, components of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) are now known to control additional cellular functions such as receptor signalling, cytokinesis, autophagy, polarity, migration, miRNA activity and mRNA transport. The diverse cell biological functions of ESCRT proteins are translated into a pleiotropic set of developmental trajectories that reflect the wide repertoire of these evolutionarily conserved proteins.     

Chm7 and Heh1 collaborate to link nuclear pore complex quality control with nuclear envelope sealing

The integrity of the nuclear envelope barrier relies on membrane remodeling by the ESCRTs, which seal nuclear envelope holes and contribute to the quality control of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs); whether these processes are mechanistically related remains poorly defined. Here, we show that the ESCRT‐II/III chimera, Chm7, is recruited to a nuclear envelope subdomain that expands upon inhibition of NPC assembly and is required for the formation of the storage of improperly assembled NPCs (SINC) compartment. Recruitment to sites of NPC assembly is mediated by its ESCRT‐II domain and the LAP2‐emerin‐MAN1 (LEM) family of integral inner nuclear membrane proteins, Heh1 and Heh2. We establish direct binding between Heh2 and the “open” forms of both Chm7 and the ESCRT‐III, Snf7, and between Chm7 and Snf7. Interestingly, Chm7 is required for the viability of yeast strains where double membrane seals have been observed over defective NPCs; deletion of CHM7 in these strains leads to a loss of nuclear compartmentalization suggesting that the sealing of defective NPCs and nuclear envelope ruptures could proceed through similar mechanisms.     

Behaviour and ecology of the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte)

1 The western corn rootworm (WCR) is a historic pest with a legacy of resistance and behavioural plasticity. Its behaviour and nutritional ecology are important to rootworm management. The success of the most effective and environmentally benign rootworm management method, annual crop rotation, was based on an understanding of rootworm behaviour and host–plant relationships. Enthusiastic adoption of crop rotation, provided excellent rootworm management, but also selected for behavioural resistance to this cultural control.
2 Though well-studied, significant gaps in WCR biology remain. Understanding the topics reviewed here (mating behaviour, nutritional ecology, larval and adult movement, oviposition, alternate host use, and chemical ecology) is a starting point for adapting integrated pest management and insect resistance management (IRM) to an expanding WCR threat. A presentation of significant questions and areas in need of further study follow each topic.
3 The expansion of WCR populations into Europe exposes this pest to new environmental and regulatory conditions that may influence its behaviour and ecology. Reviewing the state of current knowledge provides a starting point of reference for researchers and pest management decision-makers in North America and Europe.
4 The trend toward increasing adoption of transgenic maize will place an increasing premium on understanding WCR behaviour. IRM plans designed to promote sustainable deployment of transgenic hybrids are grounded on assumptions about WCR movement, mating and ovipositional behaviour. Preserving the utility of new and old management options will continue to depend on a thorough understanding of WCR biology, even as the ecological circumstances and geography of WCR problems become more complex.     

A review of resistance breeding options targeting western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte)

1 This review presents the latest research regarding maize resistance breeding against western corn rootworm (WCR) in the U.S.A. and Europe.
2 Investigations in Europe on the development of maize cultivars possessing resistant mechanisms against WCR are just beginning. In 2003, the European Commission implemented measures aimed at slowing down the spread of the WCR in Europe. Nevertheless, this pest has already been found in 20 countries of the European region. To establish a sustainable production system, the evaluation of native (nontransgenic) resistance in maize cultivars is essential.
3 This review emphasizes the future challenges involved in the research of native resistance breeding in maize against the insect.     

ESCRT‐II coordinates the assembly of ESCRT‐III filaments for cargo sorting and multivesicular body vesicle formation

The sequential action of five distinct endosomal‐sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) complexes is required for the lysosomal downregulation of cell surface receptors through the multivesicular body (MVB) pathway. On endosomes, the assembly of ESCRT‐III is a highly ordered process. We show that the length of ESCRT‐III (Snf7) oligomers controls the size of MVB vesicles and addresses how ESCRT‐II regulates ESCRT‐III assembly. The first step of ESCRT‐III assembly is mediated by Vps20, which nucleates Snf7/Vps32 oligomerization, and serves as the link to ESCRT‐II. The ESCRT‐II subunit Vps25 induces an essential conformational switch that converts inactive monomeric Vps20 into the active nucleator for Snf7 oligomerization. Each ESCRT‐II complex contains two Vps25 molecules (arms) that generate a characteristic Y‐shaped structure. Mutant ‘one‐armed’ ESCRT‐II complexes with a single Vps25 arm are sufficient to nucleate Snf7 oligomerization. However, these oligomers cannot execute ESCRT‐III function. Both Vps25 arms provide essential geometry for the assembly of a functional ESCRT‐III complex. We propose that ESCRT‐II serves as a scaffold that nucleates the assembly of two Snf7 oligomers, which together are required for cargo sequestration and vesicle formation during MVB sorting.