Self-injurious Behavior in Zoo Primates

Researchers have long known that social isolation of some primates, particularly in infancy, can lead to the development of abnormal behaviors including self-injurious behavior (SIB). However, SIB can also occur in non-isolate-reared primates and can be triggered by frustration or environmental events. The subjects of reports of SIB have mostly been laboratory primates, usually macaques. Researchers had not systematically studied whether SIB occurs in zoo primates, and if so to what extent. Here we report the results of a questionnaire-based survey of British and Irish zoos on the extent of SIB in zoo primates, and whether it was associated with any environmental or developmental events. Responses indicated that though SIB occurred across a range of primate species, its incidence was very low. Respondents identified a variety of environmental events as implicated in initiating SIB, and though the data set is too small to confirm them statistically, several trends were discernible. We conclude that SIB is not a major problem in zoo primates.     

Noninvasive Assessment of Gastrointestinal Parasite Infections in Free-Ranging Primates

Recent evidence of emerging human diseases with origins or likely transmission to humans, or both, that involve primates and a greater recognition of the risk of human pathogen transmission to free-ranging primates have raised awareness of the potential impact of zoonotic pathogen transmission on primate conservation and nonhuman primate and human health. As human population density continues to increase exponentially, speeding the reduction and fragmentation of primate habitats, greater human-primate contact is inevitable and even higher rates of pathogen transmission are likely. Thus interest has grown in collecting baseline data on patterns of parasitic infections in wild primate populations to provide an index of population health and to begin to assess and, to manage disease risks. Primatologists traditionally have been involved with such surveys through noninvasive assessment of gastrointestinal parasites. Unfortunately, previous studies have tended toward divergent methodologies, compromising the potential for longitudinal and comparative work. Here, I provide practical guidelines and standardized methodologies for the noninvasive assessment of gastrointestinal parasites of primates.

Distribution of Peripheral PrPSc in Sheep with Naturally Acquired Scrapie

Accumulation of prion protein (PrPSc) in the central nervous system is the hallmark of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. However, in some of these diseases such as scrapie or chronic wasting disease, the PrPSc can also accumulate in other tissues, particularly in the lymphoreticular system. In recent years, PrPSc in organs other than nervous and lymphoid have been described, suggesting that distribution of this protein in affected individuals may be much larger than previously thought. In the present study, 11 non-nervous/non-lymphoid organs from 16 naturally scrapie infected sheep in advanced stages of the disease were examined for the presence of PrPSc. Fourteen infected sheep were of the ARQ/ARQ PRNP genotype and 2 of the VRQ/VRQ, where the letters A, R, Q, and V represent the codes for amino-acids alanine, arginine, glutamine and valine, respectively. Adrenal gland, pancreas, heart, skin, urinary bladder and mammary gland were positive for PrPSc by immunohistochemistry and IDEXX HerdChek scrapie/BSE Antigen EIA Test in at least one animal. Lung, liver, kidney and skeletal muscle exhibited PrPSc deposits by immunohistochemistry only. To our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the presence of PrPSc in the heart, pancreas and urinary bladder in naturally acquired scrapie infections. In some other organs examined, in which PrPSc had been previously detected, PrPSc immunolabeling was observed to be associated with new structures within those organs. The results of the present study illustrate a wide dissemination of PrPSc in both ARQ/ARQ and VRQ/VRQ infected sheep, even when the involvement of the lymphoreticular system is scarce or absent, thus highlighting the role of the peripheral nervous system in the spread of PrPSc.     

Concurrent Capillaria and Heterakis Infections in Zoo Rock Partridges, Alectoris graeca

Two adult rock partridges raised in a city zoo were examined parasitologically and pathologically. Two distinctive eggs resembling those of Capillaria and Heterakis were detected in the feces. At necropsy, a markedly-dilated duodenum with severe catarrhal exudates, containing adult worms of Capillaria sp. and Heterakis sp. in the cecum, was observed. Male Capillaria had the cloacal aperture extended almost terminally with a small bursal lobe and an unsheathed spicule with transverse folds without spines. Female Capillaria had a vulva that was slightly prominent and slightly posterior to the union of the esophagus and intestine. The esophagus of the adult Capillaria was more than a half as long as the body in the male, but was much shorter in the female. Based on these morphological features, the capillarid nematode was identified as Capillaria obsignata. The male adult worms of Heterakis was identifiable by 2 dissimilar spicules, a unique morphological feature where the right spicule was considerably longer than the left, which is also a characteristic feature of Heterakis gallinarum. This is the first report of concurrent infections with C. obsignata and H. gallinarium in rock partridges.     

Naturally Occurring Disseminated Group B Streptococcus Infections in Postnatal Rats

Group B Streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae, GBS) is a gram-positive commensal and occasional opportunistic pathogen of the human vaginal, respiratory, and intestinal tracts that can cause sepsis, pneumonia, or meningitis in human neonates, infants, and immunosuppressed persons. We report here on a spontaneous outbreak of postnatal GBS-associated disease in rats. Ten of 26 (38.5%) 21- to 24-d-old rat pups died or were euthanized due to a moribund state in a colony of rats transgenic for the human diphtheria toxin receptor on a Munich–Wistar–Frömter genetic background. Four pups had intralesional coccoid bacteria in various organs without accompanying inflammation. GBS was isolated from the liver of 2 of these pups and from skin abscesses in 3 littermates. A connection with the transgene could not be established. A treatment protocol was evaluated in the remaining breeding female rats. GBS is a potentially clinically significant spontaneous infection in various populations of research rats, with some features that resemble late-onset postnatal GBS infection in human infants.Abbreviations: GBS, Group B Streptococcus; MWF, Munich Wistar Frömter; hDTR, human diphtheria toxin receptorStreptococci are gram-positive, coccoid bacteria that typically are classified according to their hemolytic capacity. α-hemolytic streptococci produce a zone of partial hemolysis that appears greenish on blood agar, whereas β-hemolytic streptococci produce a zone of complete hemolysis, and γ-hemolytic organisms produce no hemolysis on blood agar.²⁴ The β-hemolytic streptococci are further subdivided into Lancefield groups (A through G), according to cell-wall carbohydrate antigens.^24,29,39 The group B β-hemolytic Streptococcus (GBS) have been speciated as Streptococcus agalactiae.^28,39 It was first isolated as a causative agent of mastitis in cattle.²⁹ This organism has since been recognized as a cause of severe infection in human neonates.^28,39 In humans, GBS is harbored asymptomatically in the maternal genitourinary tract.^24,28 Infants can be infected and present with serious systemic disease in the first week of life (early-onset GBS) or from 1 wk to 3 mo of age (late-onset GBS).³⁹ In laboratory animals, rats have been used experimentally as models for neonatal^{1,6,7,20,37,38,43,44,47,50,51} or adult⁴⁵ GBS infection, but to our knowledge, GBS has not been associated with spontaneous disease in rats.     

Viral Proteinase Requirements for the Nucleocytoplasmic Relocalization of Cellular Splicing Factor SRp20 during Picornavirus Infections

Infection of mammalian cells by picornaviruses results in the nucleocytoplasmic redistribution of certain host cell proteins. These viruses interfere with import-export pathways, allowing for the cytoplasmic accumulation of nuclear proteins that are then available to function in viral processes. We recently described the cytoplasmic relocalization of cellular splicing factor SRp20 during poliovirus infection. SRp20 is an important internal ribosome entry site (IRES) trans-acting factor (ITAF) for poliovirus IRES-mediated translation; however, it is not known whether other picornaviruses utilize SRp20 as an ITAF and direct its cytoplasmic relocalization. Also, the mechanism by which poliovirus directs the accumulation of SRp20 in the cytoplasm of the infected cell is currently unknown. Work described in this report demonstrated that infection by another picornavirus (coxsackievirus B3) causes SRp20 to relocalize from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of HeLa cells, similar to poliovirus infection; however, SRp20 is relocalized to a somewhat lesser extent in the cytoplasm of HeLa cells during infection by yet another picornavirus (human rhinovirus 16). We show that expression of poliovirus 2A proteinase is sufficient to cause the nucleocytoplasmic redistribution of SRp20. Following expression of poliovirus 2A proteinase in HeLa cells, we detect cleavage of specific nuclear pore proteins known to be cleaved during poliovirus infection. We also find that expression of human rhinovirus 16 2A proteinase alone can cause efficient cytoplasmic relocalization of SRp20, despite the lower levels of SRp20 relocalization observed during rhinovirus infection compared to poliovirus. Taken together, these results further define the mechanism of SRp20 cellular redistribution during picornavirus infections, and they provide additional insight into some of the differences observed between human rhinovirus and other enterovirus infections.     

出生在动物园的黑颈鹤

据上世纪80年代统计,全世界仅有800多只黑颈鹤,主要分布在中国。动物园显然不可以再直接从野外捕捉黑颈鹤补充自己的动物资源,可偏偏这宝贝在动物园里就是不肯繁殖。动手解决这个难题,拉开了动物园从利用自然转向保护自然的序幕。[编者按]     

Host Immune Responses to Chronic Adenovirus Infections in Human and Nonhuman Primates

Recent studies indicate that great apes and macaques chronically shed adenoviruses in the stool. Shedding of adenovirus in the stool of humans is less prevalent, although virus genomes persist in gut-associated lymphoid tissue in the majority of individual samples. Chimpanzees have high levels of broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies to adenoviruses in serum, with very low frequencies of adenovirus-specific T cells in peripheral blood. A similar situation exists in macaques; sampling of guts from macaques demonstrated adenovirus-specific T cells in lamina propria. Humans show intermediate levels of serum neutralizing antibodies, with adenovirus-specific T cells in peripheral blood of all individuals sampled and about 20% of samples from the gut, suggesting a potential role of T cells in better controlling virus replication in the gut. The overall structure of the E3 locus, which is involved in modulating the host''s response to infection, is degenerate in humans compared to that in apes, which may contribute to diminished evasion of host immunity. The impact of adenovirus persistence and immune responses should be considered when using adenoviral vectors in gene therapy and genetic vaccines.Viruses of the Adenoviridae family infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts. Adenoviruses that infect mammals belong to the genus Mastadenovirus and encompass at least seven viral species (formerly called subtypes) that infect primates (5). The molecular biology of human-derived adenoviruses has been characterized extensively for the species C group, for which human adenovirus 2 (HAdV-2) and HAdV-5 serve as prototypes (6). Adenoviruses cause a variety of nonlethal infectious diseases in humans, and lethal disseminated adenovirus infection occurs in immunosuppressed patients (6). Attempts to evaluate the pathogenesis of human adenoviruses in animal models have been difficult since most models demonstrate a very narrow permissiveness for virus replication.The natural history of adenovirus infections in humans was initially evaluated in prospective surveillance studies of family cohorts (7, 8). Self-limited respiratory illnesses in children were the most common syndromes associated with adenovirus infection, although virus was most easily detected in the stool. Excretion of virus in stool usually wanes rapidly following resolution of the infectious syndrome but is prolonged for a subset of individuals. Species C adenoviruses, which are the most prevalent in humans, can establish latency in adenoid and tonsil-derived lymphocytes (9).Adenovirus vectors have been used successfully as vaccine carriers due to their ability to elicit potent cellular and humoral immune response to the encoded transgene product. Recombinant vectors based on HAdV-5 have emerged as a potent platform for activating cytotoxic T lymphocytes against tumor and viral antigens. A problematic response of the host to HAdV-5-based vectors that was not predicted based on animal testing was observed in a clinical trial, namely, there was a paradoxical increased susceptibility to infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) following vaccination with an HIV-based HAdV-5 vector in subjects with evidence of prior exposure to a natural infection with HAdV-5 (2).     

Cryptococcosis in columbiformes at the San Diego Zoo.

Two cases of cryptococcosis in columbiformes exhibited at the San Diego Zoo are described. The organism isolated from the first case had morphological, chemical and temperature growth characteristics of C. neoformans. The culture from case 2 died before it could be examined biochemically or by mouse inoculation.     

Effect of Selenium Yeast Supplementation on Naturally Acquired Parasitic Infection in Ewes

Gastrointestinal parasites cause substantial economic losses in pasture-based sheep production systems. Supranutritional organic selenium (Se) supplementation may be beneficial because it improves immune responses to pathogens. To evaluate the effect of Se-yeast supplementation on gastrointestinal parasite load, 30 ewes per treatment group were drenched weekly with no Se, 4.9 mg Se/week as Se yeast (maximum FDA-allowed concentration), or supranutritional concentrations of Se yeast (14.7 and 24.5 mg Se/week) starting early fall for 85 weeks. Fecal samples were collected at weeks 63, 66, 78, and 84 and counted for total trichostrongyle-type eggs and Haemonchus contortus eggs (in samples with ≥200 trichostrongyle eggs/g feces). During breeding season (fall), ewes were kept on pasture; ewes receiving 24.5 mg Se/week had lower fecal trichostrongyle egg counts (93?±?40 eggs/g feces) compared with ewes receiving no Se (537?±?257 eggs/g feces; P?=?0.007) or ewes receiving 4.9 mg Se/week as Se yeast (398?±?208 eggs/g feces; P?=?0.03). In winter, fecal trichostrongyle egg counts decreased, and group differences were not apparent. During lambing season (spring), ewes were kept in the barn and fecal trichostrongyle egg counts increased, although no group differences were observed. However, none of the ewes receiving supranutritional Se yeast, and with trichostrongyle egg counts ≥200 eggs/g of feces, but four of the ewes receiving lower Se dosages had H. contortus egg counts ≥1,000 eggs/g feces (P?=?0.04). Our results suggest that supranutritional Se-yeast supplementation may enhance resistance to naturally occurring H. contortus gastrointestinal parasitism in sheep.     

Reproductive parameters of mandrills at the Tulsa Zoo

The genital swelling patterns and birth records of female mandrills housed at the Tulsa Zoo between 1979 and 1992 were examined to determine various reproductive parameters. Mean age at first adolescent genital swelling was 2.7 years (sd = .55), first adult swelling was 3.7 years (sd = .64), and first conception was 5.1 years (sd = 1.30). Genital swelling cycle duration averaged 39.6 days (n = 33 cycles), with the swelling phase averaging 19.5 days (n = 51 cycles). There was no interindividual difference in cycle length (F = 1.26, P = .31) or swelling duration (F = 0.65, P = .58), nor was there a difference in cycle length (F = 0.47, P = .50) or swelling duration (F = 1.27, P = .27) before and after first parturition. Duration of gestation was estimated to be 165.9 days (sd = 3.3; n = 17 pregnancies). Lactational anestrus averaged 10.1 months, whereas mean interbirth interval was 17.9 months (n = 11). There was a significant negative correlation between age of the mother and interbirth interval (r = ?;0.648, P = .03). Data presented in this report provide a comprehensive profile of reproductive parameters for zoo-housed mandrills, which may aid other facilities in the reproductive management of their captive groups. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Animal Activity and Visitor Learning at the Zoo

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect animal activity had on information visitors attended to at three bear exhibits. Attention was used as an indirect measure of what information visitors are consciously processing, or learning. It was hypothesized that visitors would be more likely to attend to specific information about animal behavior when bears were active rather than when inactive or out of sight. Visitor conversations were recorded during observations of polar, sloth and spectacled bears. Conversation was coded according to its content (animal-directed, human-focused, behavior, other) and to the corresponding behavior of the bear (active, inactive, pacing, not visible). The energy level of the activity was also considered. The hypothesis was supported for the polar bears, but less so for the other two bears. Behavior conversation was highest and human-directed conversation was lowest in the presence of highly animated polar bears. Behavior content was limited in the presence of the less animated sloth and spectacled bears. However, it was still significantly less frequent, and human content more frequent, when the sloth and spectacled bears were pacing and/or not visible. Therefore, what visitors attended to was influenced by what the bears were doing. The findings suggest that animated activity (rather than the more broadly defined ‘activity’) elicits the most visitor attention to behavior, and this in turn potentially facilitates visitor learning.     

Technology at the Zoo: The Influence of a Touchscreen Computer on Orangutans and Zoo Visitors

A computer‐controlled touchscreen apparatus (hereafter referred to as “touchscreen”) in the orangutan exhibit at Zoo Atlanta provides enrichment to the animals and allows cognitive research to take place on exhibit. This study investigated the impact of the touchscreen on orangutan behavior and visibility, as well as its impact on zoo visitors. Despite previous research suggesting that providing a single computer system may negatively affect orangutan behavior, there was not a significant increase in aggression, stereotypic, or distress‐related behaviors following the activation of the on‐exhibit touchscreen. We also investigated the possibility that zoo visitors may be negatively affected by technology because it deviates from naturalism. However, we did not find a change in stay time or overall experience rating when the computer was turned on. This research was the first to assess visitor attitudes toward technology at the zoo, and we found that visitors report highly positive attitudes about technology for both animals and visitors. If subjects visited the exhibit when the computer was turned on, they more strongly agreed that orangutans benefit from interacting with computerized enrichment. This study is the first investigation of an on‐exhibit touchscreen in group‐housed apes; our findings of no negative effects on the animals or zoo visitors and positive attitudes toward technology suggest a significant value of this practice. Zoo Biol 31:27;–39, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The behavioral research program at the Washington Park Zoo

For the past decade, the Washington Park Zoo, Portland, Oregon, has had an active behavioral research program. The research department is both a zoo-supported research facility for visiting researchers and staff, and an educational facility that teaches practical behavioral research methods to undergraduates. The research education program utilizes students from any of a dozen local colleges and universities. Students receive academic credit for their participation. Active keeper-participation plays a major role in many research projects. Not only does keeper-cooperation facilitate research, but their knowledge of the individual animals often proves invaluable. In addition to involvement in student projects, keepers have also conducted their own research projects.     

Kinematics of swimming of penguins at the Detroit Zoo

Kinematic parameters were examined in a study of the swimming abilities of seven species of penguins housed at the Detroit Zoo. Penguins produce thrust over both halves of the wing stroke cycle, as observed in fishes using the caudal or pectoral fins for locomotion, but not in other birds in level forward flight. Unpowered gliding phases between wing strokes were observed in all species at swimming speeds less than 1.25 m/sec, while Emperor, King and Adelie penguins interpose gliding phases over a broad range of speeds. Videotape records reveal that length-specific speed is correlated with increases in wingbeat frequency and, for most of the species examined, stride length. These findings are in contrast to those reported for other, flying birds, which maintain a relatively constant wingbeat frequency but vary stride length with forward speed, and for most fishes, which vary speed with tailbeat frequency but maintain a constant stride length. The results are somewhat comparable to those reported for Cymatogaster , a fish which uses the pectoral fins for locomotion. Drag coefficients of three gliding Emperor penguins were 2.1, 3.0 and 3.0 × 10-⁻³ at Reynolds numbers of 1.25, 1.62 and 1.76 × 10⁶, respectively.     

动物园里的野客

走进动物园,看厌了懒洋洋地躲在铁丝笼角落里的动物,我总爱到水禽湖,感受一下那儿的生机勃勃、热闹非凡的场景。 在这里,有忙着觅食、求偶、繁殖、争夺地盘的各种水禽、涉禽,有不买门票就堂而遑之地进园的“不速之客”,或小住时日,或客居几个月,或从此安家落户,生息繁衍。到了秋季,过路的椋鸟与乌鸦、喜鹊争食园中柿子树上红彤彤的柿子的场景,也总让我流连忘返。 而最让我痴迷的是生活在北京动物园里的野生夜鹭,它们一面享受