Improved germination efficiency of Salicornia ramosissima seeds inoculated with Bacillus aryabhattai SP1016‐20

Saline agriculture and the crop cultivation of halophytes represent an alternative for the reclamation of salinized soils and for the management of irrigation water. Halotolerant plant growth promoting bacteria with biocontrol effect, as an alternative to commercial fungicides, may contribute to improve crop productivity while mitigating saline stress effects. The objective of this work was to isolate autochthonous rhizobacteria with biocontrol features, to be used as germination enhancers and plant‐growth promoting agents in the crop cultivation of Salicornia ramosissima. A set of isolates obtained from the rhizosphere of S. ramosissima was characterised in terms of Gram, motility, salt tolerance and biocontrol traits (hydrogen cyanide production, antifungal activity and production of extracellular lipases and proteases). One Gram‐positive motile isolate that tested positive for all biocontrol traits was identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing as Bacillus aryabhattai. The inoculation of S. ramosissima seeds with B. aryabhattai SP1016‐20 reduced the negative effect of salinity on the germination efficiency. At the highest tested salinity (30 g/L NaCl) the final germination efficiency of inoculated seeds doubled in relation to non‐inoculated controls. Although the mechanisms involved in the biocontrol effect were not defined in the current work, the results highlight the potential of Bacillus aryabhattai SP1016‐20 as a plant‐growth promoting agent for the crop cultivation of Salicornia and contribute to the strengthening of the scientific basis of biosaline agriculture and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria‐assisted crop cultivation of halophytes in saline soils and estuarine sediments.     

Effect of salinity on seed germination and seedling growth of the halophyte Suaeda japonica Makino

Seed germination and seedling growth of the annual halophyte species Suaeda japonica Makino were investigated in response to variable salinity of sediment pore water. The germination percentage of S. japonica’s soft brown seeds, which are dominant among dimorphic seeds, decreased with an increase in salinity, although germination was still observed at 1200‐mM NaCl concentration. The germination percentage and germination speed observed in April were higher than those observed in December when treated with sediment water with 400–1200 mM of NaCl concentrations. These data suggest that S. japonica seedlings could be established on sediments that experience high temperatures. Germination recovery of S. japonica seeds transferred from 600‐mM NaCl containing sediment (seawater equivalent) was lowest among 0–1200‐mM NaCl treatments, implying the low tolerance of seawater conditions of S. japonica seeds. Seeds germinated in 900‐ to 1200‐mM NaCl medium showed poor growth, but survived, in hypersaline conditions, and exhibited improvement in growth upon transfer to lower salinity.     

The Effect of Long-Term Cd and Ni Exposure on Seed Endophytes of Agrostis capillaris and Their Potential Application in Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils

We examined whether long-term Cd exposure leads to beneficial changes in the cultivable endophytic bacteria present in the seeds of Agrostis capillaris. Therefore the cultivable seed endophytes of Agrostis capillaris growing on a long-term Cd/Ni-contaminated plot (Cd/Ni seeds) were compared with those originating from a non-contaminated plot (control seeds). We observed plant- and contaminant-dependent effects on the population composition between control and Cd/Ni seeds. Also differences in phenotypic characteristics were found: endophytes from Cd/Ni seeds exhibited more ACC deaminase activity and production of siderophores and IAA, while endophytes from control seeds, very surprisingly, showed more metal tolerance.

Finally, the 3 most promising seed endophytes were selected based on their metal tolerance and plant growth promoting potential, and inoculated in Agrostis capillaris seedlings. In case of non-exposed plants, inoculation resulted in a significantly improved plant growth; after inoculation of Cd-exposed plants an increased Cd uptake was achieved without affecting plant growth. This indicates that inoculation of Agrostis with its seed endophytes might be beneficial for its establishment during phytoextraction and phytostabilisation of Cd-contaminated soils.     

Vegetative salt tolerance of barnyard grass mutants selected for salt tolerant germination

Improving salt tolerance of economically important plants is imperative to cope with the increasing soil salinity in many parts of the world. Mutation breeding has been widely used to improve plant performance under salinity stress. In this study, we have mutagenized Echinochloa crusgalli L. with sodium azide and three selected mutants (designated fows A) with salt tolerant germination. Their vegetative growth was compared to that of the wild type after short-term and long-term salt stress. The germination of the three fows A mutants in the presence of inhibitory concentrations of NaCl, KCL, and mannitol was better than that of the wild type. Early growth of the mutants in the presence of 200 mM NaCl was also better than that of the wild type perhaps due to improved K⁺ uptake and enhanced accumulation of sugars particularly sucrose at least in two mutants. But the three mutants and the wild type responded similarly to long-term salt stress. The tolerance mechanisms during short-term and long-term salt stress are discussed.     

Screening of pollen grains vis-à-vis whole plants of oilseed brassicas for tolerance to salt

Pollen grains and whole plants of 11 cultivars of oilseed brassicas (B. juncea,B. campestris,B. carinata) were screened for salt tolerance. Whereas pollen germination percentage in sitting drop cultures served as a reliable index of pollen tolerance to NaCl, pollen-tube growth did not. Seed yield in plants of the same 11 cultivars raised in artificially salinized soils also proved to be a good index of whole plant tolerance to soil salinity. A close correspondence between pollen (gametophyte) and whole plant (sporophyte) responses to salinity was discovered. Our studies show that tolerance to salt is yet another trait expressed in both the sporophyte and gametophyte.On study leave from the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi     

SEED GERMINATION RESPONSE AND EVIDENCE FOR HEIGHT ECOPHENES IN SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA FROM NORTH CAROLINA

A study was conducted to determine germination response to temperature and salinity and seedling response to salinity by three height forms of the salt marsh grass Spartina alterniflora Loisel. Germination tests showed that seeds cannot withstand drying at moderate temperature, as viability was lost within 40 days in seeds stored dry at 72 F. Cold storage at 43 F is adequate to prevent desiccation up to 40 days, but after 8 months viability is lost. Viability is retained at least 8 months when seeds are stored in sea water at 43 F. Germination response was good in a 65–95 F alternating diurnal thermoperiod but was poor in a 72 F constant thermoperiod. Germination response to salinity was an inverse curvilinear relationship with germination inhibition at high salinities apparently due to osmotic effects. The maximum tolerance limit for germination lies between 6 and 8 % NaCl. Seeds from short, medium, and tall plants responded similarly in storage and temperature studies. However, in salinity studies, seeds of the Ocracoke Island short form and the Oak Island tall form performed best. A logarithmic curve best described seedling growth response to various NaCl levels. Growth response as measured by seedling dry weight was best in 0.5 % NaCl solution. Seedlings grew taller in both 0.5 and 1.0 % NaCl than in 0 % NaCl. No significant difference in seedling growth response due to height form of the parent plant was detected. Thus, on the basis of germination and seedling responses, the height forms of S. alterniflora in North Carolina salt marshes are best described as ecophenes.     

Alleviation of salt stress by plant growth regulators and IAA producing bacteria in wheat

The action of phytohormone producing bacteria and plant growth regulators on germination and seedling growth of wheat under saline conditions were studied. Seed dormancy enforced by salinity (100 mM NaCl) was substantially alleviated and the germination was promoted by gibberellin, auxin, zeatin, and ethephon from 54 to 97%. The IAA producing bacterial strains Pseudomonas aureantiaca TSAU22, Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU6 and Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU20 significantly increased seedling root growth up to 25% in non-salinated conditions and up to 52% at 100 mM NaCl, compared to control plants. It is concluded that growth regulators considerably alleviated salinity-induced dormancy of wheat seeds. The facts mentioned above make it possible to recommend root colonizing bacteria that produce phytohormone to alleviate salt stress of wheat grown under conditions of soil salinity.     

The role of the seed coat in adaptation of dimorphic seeds of the euhalophyte Suaeda salsa to salinity

The role of the seed coat in adaptation of dimorphic seeds of the euhalophyte Suaeda salsa to salinity was investigated during germination and early seedling growth. Black and brown seeds were treated with chloroform for 1 min before the extract was used to analyze waxes and the seeds to investigate the protective role of the seed coat under saline conditions. Waxes in black seed coats were more abundant than those in brown seed coats. Salinity (500 mM NaCl) increased the concentration of Na⁺ and decreased the concentration of K⁺ in both black and brown seeds regardless of chloroform treatment. Chloroform treatment alone (in the absence of NaCl) had no effect on the concentration of Na⁺ or K⁺ in black or brown seeds and in the presence of 500 mM NaCl had no effect on the concentration of Na⁺ or K⁺ in brown seeds. However, chloroform treatment increased Na⁺ and decreased K⁺ in black seeds with 500 mM NaCl. A change of MDA (malondialdehyde) concentration in black and brown seeds treated with or without chloroform was similar to the change of Na⁺ concentration. High salinity (1500 mM NaCl) pretreatment for 40 days had a less adverse effect on germination of black seeds compared with brown seeds after they were transferred to fresh water regardless of chloroform treatment. Similar results were found for seedling emergence. In conclusion, a black seed coat may be more protective than a brown seed coat, probably by shielding the embryo from ion toxicity, because of its higher content of waxes. Thus black seeds can better maintain seed viability than brown seeds for extended periods under hypersaline conditions.     

Germination profiling of lentil genotypes subjected to salinity stress

• Salinity is one of the most severe environmental stresses, negatively affecting productivity of salt‐sensitive crop species. Given that germination is the most critical phase in the plant life cycle, the present study aimed to determine seed germination potential and associated traits under salt stress conditions as a simple approach to identify salt‐tolerant lentil genotypes.
• The genetic material consisted of six lentil genotypes whose adaptation to various agroclimatic conditions is not well elucidated. Salinity stress was applied by addition of NaCl at three different levels of stress, while non‐stressed plants were included as controls. Evaluation of tolerance was performed on the basis of germination percentage, seed water absorbance, root and shoot length, seedling water content, seedling vigour index and number of seedlings with an abnormal phenotype.
• Overall, our findings revealed that salinity stress substantially affects all traits associated with germination and early seedling growth, with the effect of salinity being dependent on the level of stress applied. It is noteworthy, however, that genotypes responded differently to the varying salinity levels. In this context, Samos proved the most salt‐tolerant genotype, indicating its possible use for cultivation under stress conditions.
• In conclusion, the determination of seed germination and early growth potential may be exploited as an efficient strategy to reveal genetic variation in lentil germplasm of unknown tolerance to salinity stress. This approach allows selection of desirable genotypes at early growth stages, thus enabling more efficient application of various breeding methods to achieve stress‐tolerant lentil genotypes.

     

Arbuscular mycorrhiza influences carbon‐use efficiency and grain yield of wheat grown under pre‐ and post‐anthesis salinity stress

• Soil salinity severely affects and constrains crop production worldwide. Salinity causes osmotic and ionic stress, inhibiting gas exchange and photosynthesis, ultimately impairing plant growth and development. Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) have been shown to maintain light and carbon use efficiency under stress, possibly providing a tool to improve salinity tolerance of the host plants. Thus, it was hypothesized that AM will contribute to improved growth and yield under stress conditions.
• Wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.) were grown with (AMF+) or without (AMF?) arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation. Plants were subjected to salinity stress (200 mm NaCl) either at pre‐ or post‐anthesis or at both stages. Growth and yield components, leaf chlorophyll content as well as gas exchange parameters and AMF colonization were analysed.
• AM plants exhibited a higher rate of net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance and lower intrinsic water use efficiency. Furthermore, AM wheat plants subjected to salinity stress at both pre‐anthesis and post‐anthesis maintained higher grain yield than non‐AM salinity‐stressed plants.
• These results suggest that AMF inoculation mitigates the negative effects of salinity stress by influencing carbon use efficiency and maintaining higher grain yield under stress.

     

Full spectrum X‐ray mapping reveals differential localization of salt in germinating seeds of differing salt tolerance

Seeds of many coastal plants can survive exposure to seawater and may be dispersed long distances by the ocean. The salt tolerance or avoidance strategies of seeds are poorly understood, even though these traits may fundamentally influence dispersal and recruitment in coastal dunes. This research aimed to demonstrate how salt exclusion or localization within germinating seeds may affect salt tolerance. To determine the response of seeds to external salinity during imbibition (water uptake), it was necessary to quantify uptake and spatially resolve the internal distribution of salt. Flame photometry was used to quantify salt concentration in imbibing seeds and a new application of full‐spectrum X‐ray mapping allowed visualization of the spatial distribution and relative abundance of salt. As external salinity increased, salt‐sensitive Spyridium globulosum (Rhamnaceae) seeds accumulated sodium and chlorine in the seed embryo, while potassium was increasingly displaced and germination was reduced. Conversely, salt‐tolerant Ficinia nodosa (Cyperaceae) seeds avoided ion uptake and germination was not affected by imbibition in high sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations. These results provide insight into mechanisms of salt tolerance/avoidance during imbibition and early germination and suggest that oceanic dispersal can be a viable explanation for the distribution of some plant species. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 173 , 129–142.     

Maintenance of photosynthesis and the antioxidant defence systems have key roles for survival of Halopeplis perfoliata (Amaranthaceae) in a saline environment

• Coastal salt marsh plants employ various combinations of morphological and physiological adaptations to survive under saline conditions. Little information is available on salinity tolerance mechanisms of Halopeplis perfoliata, a C3 stem succulent halophyte.
• We investigated the growth, photosynthesis and antioxidant defence mechanisms of H. perfoliata under saline conditions (0, 150, 300 and 600 mM NaCl) in an open greenhouse.
• Optimal shoot succulence, projected shoot area and relative growth rate were obtained in the low (150 mm NaCl) salinity treatment, while growth was inhibited at the highest salinity (600 mm NaCl). The CO₂ compensation point and carbon isotope composition of biomass confirmed C₃ photosynthesis. Increases in salinity did not affect the photosynthetic pigment content or maximum quantum efficiency of PSII of H. perfoliata. Assimilation of CO₂ (A) also remained unaffected by salinity. A modest effect on some gas exchange and photochemistry parameters was observed at 600 mm NaCl. With increasing salinity, there was a continual increase in respiration, suggesting utilisation of energy to cope with saline conditions. Under 300 and 600 mm NaCl, there was an increase in H₂O₂ and MDA with a concomitant rise in AsA, GR content and CAT activity.
• Hence, H. perfoliata appears to be an obligate halophyte that can grow up to seawater salinities by modulating photosynthetic gas exchange, photochemistry and the antioxidant defence systems.

     

Effects of various salts on the germination of three perennial salt marsh species

We studied the germination responses of Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Juncus acutus and Schoenus nigricans to saline stress caused by different salt types. The germination percentage and mean time to germination data were obtained by incubating seeds for 30 d in 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5% saline solutions of NaCl, MgCl₂, MgSO₄ and Na₂SO₄ at 30/20 °C and with a 12 h photoperiod. A. macrostachyum was the most tolerant species to salinity during the germination (65% in 2% NaCl). S. nigricans showed the lowest germination (none germinated in salt and only 26% in distilled water). J. acutus showed intermediate behaviour between the two above species, its germination being inhibited by high salt concentrations. The sulphates had less inhibitory effect than the equivalent chloride concentrations.     

Salinity and germination of annual Melilotus from the Guadalquivir delta (SW Spain)

The germination response to NaCl treatments has been studied in Melilotus seed populations collected from saline and non-saline soils in the Guadalquivir delta. The rank orders for salt tolerance and seed weight were the same in the threeMelilotus species living in this area:Melilotus messanensis>M. segetalis>M. indica. Within the species, differences in germination response to salinity were found inM. indica (6 populations) andM. segetalis (8 populations). The relationship between salt tolerance during germination and salinity of maternal habitat is discussed.     

盐度及种间相互作用对海三棱藨草、互花米草萌发及生长的影响

盐度和种间作用是影响湿地植物群落构建的关键因子。然而,已有研究主要集中于植物成体阶段,我们对生活史早期更新阶段的种间相互作用了解十分有限。崇明东滩国家级自然保护区是位于长江口的重要湿地,外来入侵植物互花米草对优势土著物种海三棱藨草的竞争排斥对当地生态系统造成了严重的负面影响。通过受控实验探讨了盐度及种间作用对海三棱藨草和互花米草种子萌发及生长的影响,以深入了解更新过程在盐沼湿地植物群落构建中的作用。结果表明,在培养皿中盐度对海三棱藨草的萌发有显著抑制作用,互花米草的萌发率受盐度影响不显著但萌发进程被延迟。混种处理对两者的萌发存在一定促进效应,且其作用强度受到盐度的调控。海三棱藨草与互花米草种子在萌发阶段的相互促进并非是通过化感作用实现的,可能是由于萌发过程对盐分的吸收减弱了盐胁迫的影响。盆栽条件下,两物种混种时的萌发及生长表现（高度、地上生物量）较单种时有所下降,但差异不显著。种间竞争受环境胁迫程度及生活史阶段的影响,竞争作用在胁迫较弱的淡水环境及生活史后期更强。盐沼湿地植物群落在形成早期受到盐度等环境因子的影响较大,不同植物对盐胁迫的响应是影响种群建成的主导因素,后期种间竞争的重要性不断增加,最终决定了植物群落的整体格局。     

Effects of NaCl stress on seed germination and seedling development of Brassica insularis Moris (Brassicaceae)

• Brassica insularis is a protected plant that grows on both coastal and inland cliffs in the western Mediterranean Basin. The objective of this study was to test if any variability exists in the salt stress response during seed germination and seedling development in this species relative to its provenance habitat.
• Variability among three populations in the salt stress effects on seed germination and recovery under different temperatures was evaluated. The effect of nebulisation of a salt solution on seedling development was evaluated between populations growing at different distances from the sea.
• Seeds of B. insularis could germinate at NaCl concentrations up to 200 mm . Seed viability was negatively affected by salt, and recovery ability decreased with increasing temperature or salinity. Inter‐population variability was detected in salt response during the seed germination phase, as well as in seedling salt spray tolerance. The inland population seedlings had drastically decreased survival and life span and failed to survive to the end of the experiment. In contrast, at least 90% of the coastal seedlings survived, even when sprayed at the highest frequency with salt solution.
• This study allowed investigation of two natural factors, soil salinity and marine aerosols, widely present in the B. insularis habitat, and provided the first insights into ecology of this protected species and its distribution in the Mediterranean. These results might be useful in understanding the actual distributions of other species with the same ecology that experience these same abiotic parameters.

     

沙地云杉和青海云杉种子萌发和幼苗生长对干旱盐碱胁迫的响应

利用控制实验研究了水分、盐分生态因子对沙地云杉和青海云杉种子萌发和幼苗生长的影响,以探索沙地云杉和青海云杉种子对水分、盐分生态因子的适应性。结果表明:(1)水分胁迫和盐分胁迫对沙地云杉和青海云杉种子萌发具有明显的抑制作用,可显著的降低种子的发芽率,两种云杉种子对水分胁迫的临界值和极限值分别是-0.03、-0.15 MPa和-0.5、-0.58 MPa;对盐分胁迫的临界值和极限值分别是78、148 mmol/L和284、345mmol/L;其幼苗长度随着渗透势和NaCl浓度的增加而显著减小。(2)沙地云杉和青海云杉种子恢复发芽率及恢复后的幼苗长度随着渗透势和NaCl浓度的增加先增加后减少。(3)在相同的水势条件下,PEG溶液比等渗的NaCl溶液对沙地云杉和青海云杉种子萌发具有更大的抑制作用,种子萌发过程中渗透胁迫比离子毒害的抑制作用更大。研究发现,沙地云杉和青海云杉种子对水分和盐分胁迫表现出不同程度的耐受性,两者对盐分胁迫的忍耐能力超过对水分胁迫;而且青海云杉种子比沙地云杉更耐旱、耐盐;早期的低盐和充分的水分条件是沙地云杉和青海云杉存活的关键。     

Influence of Salinity and Temperature on the Germination of Haloxylon recurvum Bunge ex. Boiss.

The stem succulent perennial halophyteHaloxylon recurvum Bungeex. Boiss. grows and produces seed under highly saline conditionsand seeds are deposited in saline soils. Experiments were conductedto determine the effect of salinity and temperature on the germinationof seeds. Results indicate that seeds can germinate at veryhigh salt concentrations (500 mM). However, highest germinationpercentages were obtained in distilled water. Cooler thermoperiodspromoted germination, while high temperatures significantlyinhibited the germination of seeds at all NaCl concentrationstested. Rate of germination decreased with increases in salinity.At higher thermoperiods the rate of germination was significantlylower in comparison to lower thermoperiods. Seeds recover afterbeing transferred to distilled water and recovery was higherfrom higher salinity concentrations and lower thermoperiods.Final recovery germination percentages in high salt treatmentswere significantly lower than non-saline controls, indicatingthat exposure to high concentration of NaCl permanently inhibitedgermination. Germination; halophyte; Haloxylon recurvum recovery of germination; salinity; temperature