Wild and native plants and mushrooms sold in the open-air markets of south-eastern Poland

Background

The study of plants and fungi sold in open-air markets is an important part of ethnobotanical enquiry. Only few such studies were carried out in Europe.

Methods

Four of the largest open-air markets of south-eastern Poland were visited regularly, and the plants sold in them were recorded between 2013 and 2015. The aim of the study was to record native and/or wild species sold in the markets. All the plants sold in the markets were photographed regularly. In each market, 25 sellers were interviewed. Voucher specimens were collected and fungi were identified using DNA barcoding.

Results

Altogether, 468 species of plants were recorded, 117 of them native to south-eastern Poland – 19 only collected from the wild and 11 both wild and cultivated. Seventeen of the species are under legal protection. Most protected plants were sold from cultivation, although proper authorization procedures had not been performed. Thirty-two species of fungi were sold (including two cultivated species), all of them for culinary purposes. Two species (Lactarius quieticolor, Leccinum schistophilum) are new to the mycobiota of Poland.Ornamental plants constituted a large section of the market, and they dominated the group of native species. Food plants dominated among wild-collected plants and were sold mainly as fruits for jams, juices and alcoholic drinks, or as culinary herbs. Very few medicinal or green vegetable plants were sold. An interesting feature of the markets was the sale of Ledum palustre as an insect repellent.

Conclusions

Finding two species of fungi which are new to Poland highlights the importance of DNA barcoding in ethnomycological studies. Most items in the markets are ornamental plants, or edible fruits and mushrooms. Very few medicinal plants and green vegetables are sold, which differentiates the markets from southern European ones. Such a pattern is probably the model for most central European markets.

     

Polish Glomales

The morphological features of spores of Glomus pustulatum found in Poland are described and illustrated, and the worldwide occurrence of this species is characterized. Spores of G. pustulatum from Poland do not differ from those originally found in Canada and the United States of America. They were found in only one of more than 300 soil samples taken from over 100 localities in Poland. G. pustulatum was associated with roots of Ammophila arenaria colonizing maritime sand dunes of the Sowinski National Park, with a mean spore density of 12 in 100 g dry soil. Associated species of G. pustulatum were Acaulospora dilatata and Scutellospora dipurpurascens. G. pustulatum was found in Poland for the first time and is probably a species new to Europe.     

Arbuscular fungi and mycorrhizae (Glomales) of the Hel Peninsula,Poland

In the years 1985–1989, the occurrence of arbuscular fungi and mycorrhizae on the Hel Peninsula (Poland) was investigated with the help of 45 soil and root samples collected under 20 plant species of eight families. Except for Zea mays, the other plant species were from uncultivated sites. All soil samples contained spores of arbuscular fungi, of which about 45% were of the genus Glomus. Acaulospora spp. preferred members of the Cupressaceae. Spores of Gigaspora occurred rarely and only in two plant families. Glomus spp. were most frequently associated with plants of the Rosaceae, and species of Scutellospora were found at markedly higher frequencies among roots of plants of the Gramineae and Cupressaceae. A total of 29 spore-forming species and Glomus tenue (a fungus recognizable by its distinctive infections) were found. The most frequently recovered fungus, Glomus tenue, was present in roots of 56.8% of examined plants. Of the spore-forming fungi, the most frequently isolated spores were those of Scutellospora dipurpurascens, then Glomus constrictum, Acaulospora 61, and Glomus microcarpum. The overall spore density in examined samples averaged 99.8 in 100 g dry soil in the range 1 to 547, and was highest in a sample taken from around roots of Festuca arundinacea. The dominant fungi forming spores in sampled soils were Glomus constrictum, Glomus microcarpum, and Scutellospora dipurpurascens. The average species density was 3.9 in 100 g dry soil in the range 1 to 10, and was highest in Corynephorus canescens, Rosa canina, and Thuja occidentalis. Levels of colonization by arbuscular fungi ranged from 0.0 to94.0% (mean 23.3%) of the root length and were highest in Festuca arundinaceae and Zea mays.     

Polish Glomales

Spores of Acaulospora dilatata and Scutellospora dipurpurascens found in Poland are described and illustrated and their occurrence and distribution are characterized and mapped. Spores of Acaulospora dilatata from Poland do not differ from those originally described in the United States of America. The germination shield found in a number of spores is described and illustrated, and compared with that occurring in members of the genus Scutellospora. Acaulospora dilatata was found in five of the 303 soil samples taken from around the roots of Ammophila arenaria colonizing maritime sand dunes of the Sowinski National Park. Polish specimens of S. dipurpurascens are similar in size, wall structure, and reaction in Melzer's reagent to those described from the type localized in the United States of America. However, some spores from Poland have a thicker wall, greater sporogenous cells, and are somewhat darker coloured. They were recovered from 34 soils sampled from forests, gardens, sand dunes, and both cultivated and uncultivated soils. S. dipurpurascens was commonly associated with different plants of the Hel Peninsula and occurred regularly among the roots of Ammophila arenaria growing in the Slowinski National Park. Both species were found for the first time in Poland and are probably new to Europe.     

山东省不同植被区内野生植物根围AM菌的生态分布

ＡＭ菌是土壤习居菌 ,生态适应性强 ,可发生在各种生态环境。寄主范围也十分广泛 ,除少量植物如莎草科、苋科、灯心草科、藜科、石竹科等 2 0余科植物不能或不易形成ＡＭ外 ,大多数植物包括苔藓、蕨类、裸子植物、被子植物都能被菌根菌侵染。当前人们十分重视对野生植物上ＡＭ菌的调查[3 ,4 ,1 0 ,1 1 ,1 4 ]。研究发现 ,野生植物上可能有比栽培作物更多的ＡＭ菌种类[1 ]。我国野生植物资源丰富 ,开发和利用野生寄主植物上的ＡＭ菌潜力巨大。由于ＡＭ菌对寄主植物的选择性及对环境条件的适应性不同 ,或进化过程中的历史原因 ,造成了自然生态…     

Natural Occurrence of Pepino mosaic virus in Lycopersicon Species in Central and Southern Peru

Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV), a potexvirus first described in 1980 from pepino ( Solanum muricatum ) plants cultivated in Peru, was isolated from diseased tomato plants in the Netherlands in 1999, and is now the cause of an emerging tomato disease in Europe. In a survey of central and southern Peru, 65 wild and four cultivated populations of Lycopersicon , as well as six populations of other species of Solanaceae , were tested for the presence of PepMV and six other viruses. Of the Lycopersicon population sampled, 23 (35.4%) reacted positively in double antibody sandwich (DAS)-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with antisera to PepMV. DAS-ELISA tests for PepMV of other solanaceous species were negative, except for one sample of pepino ( Solanum muricatum ). Mechanical inoculation of susceptible Lycopersicon esculentum cv. NE-1 plants with crude sap extracts of 20 of these samples confirmed that 15 of them (from the Departments of Apurimac, Arequipa and Moquegua) were infected with PepMV; these inoculated plants were also DAS-ELISA positive and, in most cases, developed symptoms. Thirteen of the infective extracts were obtained from plants of wild Lycopersicon species (three L. chilense , three L. chmielewskii , two L. parviflorum and five L. peruvianum ) and one each from the cultivated species L. esculentum and S. muricatum . The wild Lycopersicon species are newly reported natural hosts of PepMV. Tests for the other six viruses were negative, except that two samples contained Tomato mosaic virus . Thus, PepMV occurs in Lycopersicon species in central and southern Peru, even in isolated wild populations. These results indicate that the virus is not new to the region and has an efficient mechanism of natural transmission.     

我国北方农田土壤中AM真菌的多样性

AM真菌是农业生态系中一类重要的土壤微生物,它在农田土壤中的发生和分布受多种环境因素的影响。为深入了解我国北方农田土壤中AM真菌的多样性规律,于2000年在河北、山东的农田土壤中采集有代表性的土样127个。通过进一步扩繁、纯化,从中分离出AM真菌5属22种,鉴定了20个种,包括一个国内新记录种沾屑球囊霉(Glomus spurcum)。分析AM真菌的多样性特点及其影响因素发现,农田土壤中以球囊霉属(Glomus)的频度最高,其次为无梗囊霉属(Acaulospora);优势种类为幼套球囊霉(Glomus etunicatum)和摩西球囊霉(Glomus mosseae).土壤速效磷含量、pH状况主要对孢子密度产生影响,对种群分布影响不大。宿主植物类型对AM真菌的侵染状况和多样性影响较大;比较玉米(Zea mays)、甘薯(Ipomoea batatas)根区AM真菌的种群组成后发现两者有所不同,但优势种一致.     

Diversity of acaropathogenic fungi in Poland and other European countries

The occurrence, species diversity and some aspects of taxonomical affinity and host selectivity of acaropathogenic fungi associated with phytophagous, saprotrophic and predacious mites in Poland and other European countries were investigated on wild and cultivated plants, in insect feeding sites under the bark and in decayed wood. From among 33 species of fungi affecting mites only five species of Entomophthorales were separated and the most numerous were Neozygites floridana mostly on Tetranychus urticae, N. abacaridis on a few eriophyid species, and Conidiobolus coronatus attacking gamasid mites most frequently of the genus Dendrolaelaps. The most frequent mite pathogens occurring in mite communities on plants and in wood infested by insects were of the genus Hirsutella. Until now 13 of their form-species have been recognized in these habitats, but only H. kirchneri, H. necatrix and H. thompsonii (including its variety synnematosa) can be treated as exclusive oligophagous pathogens of phytophagous mites, though their potential host range seems to embrace only selected eriophyid or tarsonemid mites. Taxonomical differentiation of fungal strains was based on close morphological observations and molecular analysis of ITS region sequences. Two new species of acaropathogenic fungi were described in these studies. Hirsutella danubiensis sp. nov. was found in the tetranychid T. urticae, whereas H. vandergeesti sp. nov. affected phytoseiid mites of the genera Amblyseius, Neoseiulus, Seiulus and Typhlodromus, and the tarsonemid Tarsonemus lacustris.     

Effects of Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard; Brassicaceae) on mycorrhizal colonization and community structure in three herbaceous plants in a mixed deciduous forest

Herbaceous plant species are important components of forest ecosystems, and their persistence in forests may be affected by invasive plant species that reduce mycorrhizal colonization of plant roots. I examined the effect of the invasive plant Alliaria petiolata on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) colonizing the roots of three forest plant species. AMF root colonization and community structure was examined from plants that were growing either in the absence or presence of Alliaria under natural forest conditions. AMF root colonization varied among the plant species but was not significantly affected by Alliaria. With molecular methods, ～12 different taxa of AMF could be distinguished among the root samples, and these taxa belonged to the genera Acaulospora and Glomus, with Glomus dominating AMF communities. There were significant differences between the community of AMF colonizing roots of Maianthemum racemosum and Trillium grandiflorum, but only AMF communities of Maianthemum roots were significantly affected by Alliaria. Indicator species analysis found that an Acaulospora species type was a significant indicator of Maianthemum plants grown in the absence of Alliaria. These results suggest invasive plants like Alliaria may selectively suppress AMF fungi, and this suppression can affect AMF communities colonizing the roots of some native plant species.     

土壤因子对野生植物AM真菌的影响

1　引　　言关于生态因子对ＡＭ真菌发生和分布的影响 ,国内外均有报道[1,2 ,7] ,张美庆等[6] 比较系统地研究了我国东、南沿海七省ＡＭ真菌的生态分布 ;吴铁航[5] 报道了几种土壤因子对栽培作物根围内ＡＭ真菌分布的影响 .本文主要介绍土壤类型、质地、营养状况、ｐＨ等对野生植物根围ＡＭ真菌的侵染、孢子密度和种属分布的影响 .2　研究地区与研究方法2 1　研究地区概况山东省位于 33°2 5′～ 38°2 3′Ｎ ,114°36′～ 12 2°4 3′Ｅ之间 ,属暖温带大陆性季风气候 ,年平均气温 11～ 14℃ ,年平均降水量为 5 5 0～ 95 0ｍｍ .根据地貌不…     

Arbuscular mycorrhizas of plants growing in the Western Ghats region, Southern India

A survey of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status of plants growing in the Western Ghats region of Southern India was undertaken. Root and soil samples of plants growing in the four vegetation types forest, grassland, scrub, and cultivated land or plantation were examined. Of the 329 species (representing 61 families) examined, 174 were mycorrhizal. AM association was recorded in 81 species for the first time, including species from several families assumed to be non-mycorrhizal, e.g. Amaranthaceae, Capparaceae, Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae and Portulacaceae. AM fungal spores of 35 species belonging to Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Glomus, Sclerocystis and Scutellospora were recorded. AM fungal species richness was found to be highest in scrub and lowest in agricultural and plantation soils. Mean colonization levels were dependent on plant life-form, life-cycle pattern and vegetation type. Accepted: 26 October 1999     

Genetic diversity of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices as determined by mitochondrial large subunit rRNA gene sequences is considerably higher than previously expected

Glomus intraradices is a widespread arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), which has been found in an extremely broad range of habitats, indicating a high tolerance for environmental factors and a generalist life history strategy. Despite this ecological versatility, not much is known about the genetic diversity of this fungal species across different habitats or over large geographic scales. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) approach for the mitochondrial rRNA large subunit gene (mtLSU), distinguished different haplotypes among cultivated isolates of G. intraradices and within mycorrhizal root samples from the field. From analysis of 16 isolates of this species originating from five continents, 12 mitochondrial haplotypes were distinguished. Five additional mtLSU haplotypes were detected in field-collected mycorrhizal roots. Some introns in the mtLSU region appear to be stable over years of cultivation and are ancestral to the G. intraradices clade. Genetic diversity within G. intraradices is substantially higher than previously thought, although some mtLSU haplotypes are widespread. A restriction fragment length polymorphism approach also was developed to distinguish mtLSU haplotypes without sequencing. Using this molecular tool, intraspecific genetic variation of an AMF species can be studied directly in field plants.     

The temporal development in a hybridizing population of wild and cultivated chicory (Cichorium intybus L.)

Hybridization and its possible impacts is a subject of increased attention in connection with the risk of unintended gene flow from cultivated (including genetically modified) plants to wild relatives. Whether such gene flow by hybridization is likely to take place depends among other things on the persistence of the hybrids in a natural environment over time. To evaluate this, we studied an experimental hybridizing population of wild and cultivated chicories (Cichorium intybus) relative to a previous study on the same population 2 years earlier. We compared the genetic composition, morphology and fitness traits of plants from 2004 to the plants in the same plot in 2002. The majority of the plants in 2004 was more morphologically and genetically intermediate than in 2002. This indicates that no selection towards being wild-like or cultivar-like was present over the period of 2 years. Furthermore, no distinct fitness differences existed between the plants of 2004, probably due to most of the plants being intermediate. No hybridization barriers appeared to be present between wild and cultivated chicories beyond the F1 generation, since F2 hybrids and backcrosses were in abundance; in fact, hybrids of probably fourth or fifth generation were present. In conclusion, all results indicate that no barriers exist to the temporal persistence of chicory hybrids in a natural environment.     

Variability of chloroplast DNA and nuclear ribosomal DNA in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and its wild relatives

Chloroplast DNA (cp) and nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) variation was investigated in 45 accessions of cultivated and wild Manihot species. Ten independent mutations, 8 point mutations and 2 length mutations were identified, using eight restriction enzymes and 12 heterologous cpDNA probes from mungbean. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis defined nine distinct chloroplast types, three of which were found among the cultivated accessions and six among the wild species. Cladistic analysis of the cpDNA data using parsimony yielded a hypothetical phylogeny of lineages among the cpDNAs of cassava and its wild relatives that is congruent with morphological evolutionary differentiation in the genus. The results of our survey of cpDNA, together with rDNA restriction site change at the intergenic spacer region and rDNA repeat unit length variation (using rDNA cloned fragments from taro as probe), suggest that cassava might have arisen from the domestication of wild tuberous accessions of some Manihot species, followed by intensive selection. M. esculenta subspp flabellifolia is probably a wild progenitor. Introgressive hybridization with wild forms and pressures to adapt to the widely varying climates and topography in which cassava is found might have enhanced the crop's present day variability.     

Domestication and the distribution of genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the Mesoamerican fruit tree Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae)

Domestication occurs as humans select and cultivate wild plants in agricultural habitats. The amount and structure of variation in contemporary cultivated populations has been shaped, in part, by how genetic material was transferred from one cultivated generation to the next. In some cultivated tree species, domestication involved a shift from sexually reproducing wild populations to vegetatively propagated cultivated populations; however, little is known about how domestication has impacted variation in these species. We employed AFLP data to explore the amount, structure, and distribution of variation in clonally propagated domesticated populations and sexually reproducing wild populations of the Neotropical fruit tree, Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae). Cultivated populations from three different agricultural habitats were included: living fences, backyards, and orchards. AFLP data were analysed using measures of genetic diversity (% polymorphic loci, Shannon's diversity index, Nei's gene diversity, panmictic heterozygosity), population structure (F(ST) analogues), and principal components analyses. Levels of genetic variation in cultivated S. purpurea populations are significantly less than variation found in wild populations, although the amount of diversity varies in different agricultural habitats. Cultivated populations have a greater proportion of their genetic variability distributed among populations than wild populations. The genetic structure of backyard populations resembles that of wild populations, but living fence and orchard populations have 1/3 more variability distributed among populations, most likely a reflection of relative levels of vegetative reproduction. Finally, these results suggest that S. purpurea was domesticated in two distinct regions within Mesoamerica.     

几种生态因素对西北干旱地区豆科植物结瘤固氮的影响

通过对西北干旱地区栽培和野生豆科植物不同环境条件固氮状况的调查表明,栽培豆科植物一般能自然结瘤,野生豆科植物种的结瘤率极低。根瘤颜色栽培植物多为粉红色,而野生植物多为白色、黄色或棕色。通过对水分、光照强度和温度等不同条件下根瘤ARA测定,表明根瘤固氮活性与生态条件关系密切,而土壤水分是限制根瘤固氮活性表达的主要因素。     

Multiple origins of cultivated radishes as evidenced by a comparison of the structural variations in mitochondrial DNA of Raphanus.

Configurations of mitochondrial coxI and orfB gene regions were analysed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in three wild and one cultivated species of Raphanus. A total of 207 individual plants from 60 accessions were used. PCR with five combinations of primers identified five different amplification patterns both in wild and cultivated radishes. While the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) type of Ogura male-sterile cytoplasm was distinguishable from the normal type, the mtDNAs of normal radishes were further classified into four types. The variations were common to wild and cultivated radishes, although contrasting features were found depending on the region of cultivation. These results provide evidence that cultivated radishes have multiple origins from various wild plants of Raphanus.     

野生植物根围的丛枝菌根真菌Ⅱ

本文主要报道了野生植物根围Glomus属的17个种,聚球囊霉G.aggregatumSchenck＆Smith,苏格兰球囊霉G.caledonium（Nicol.＆Gerd.）Trappe＆Gerd,近明球囊霉G．claroideumSchenck＆Smith,明球囊霉G．clarumNicolson＆Schenck,缩球囊霉G．constrictumTrappe,透光球囊霉G．diaphanumMorton,幼套球囊霉G．etunicatumBecker＆Gerdemann,集球囊霉G．fasciculatum（Thaxter）Gerd．＆Trappe,何氏球囊霉G．hoiBerch＆Trappe,地球囊霉G.geosporum（Nicol．＆Derd.）Warker,根内球囊霉G．intraradicesSchenck＆Smith,摩西球囊霉G．mosseae（Nicol．＆Gerd.）Gerd.＆Trappe,隐球囊霉G.occultumWalker,网状球囊霉G.reticulatumBhattcharjee＆Mukerji,地表球囊霉G.versiforme（Karsten）Berch,台湾球囊霉G．formosanumWu＆Chen,悬钩子球囊霉G．rubiformeGerdemann＆Trappe）Almeida＆Schenck;内养囊霉属1个种,稀有内养囊霉Entrophosporainfrequens（Hall）Ames＆Schenider。其中,网状球囊霉为我国新记录种。     

福建漳州常见药用植物根围的丛枝菌根真菌

为了解闽南地区药用植物根围丛枝菌根真菌多样性分布,作者调查了福建省漳州市20种常见药用植物根围的AM真菌。从福建省漳州市小溪镇、国强乡等地共分离出无梗囊霉属Acaulospora 12种、原囊霉属Archaeospora 1种、巨孢囊霉属Gigaspora 2种、球囊霉属Glomus 42种、盾巨孢囊霉属Scutellospora 9种,其中沙生球囊霉Glomus arenarium、金黄球囊霉Glomus aureum和厚皮球囊霉Glomus callosum等3种为我国新记录种。     

Genetic diversity and population structure of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Kalopanax pictus</Emphasis> (Araliaceae)

Kalopanax pictus (Araliaceae) is a long-lived woody species primarily distributed throughout East Asia. This species is regarded as medically and ecologically important in Korea. We used starch gel electrophoresis to investigate its allozyme variation and genetic structure in samples from Korean populations (both natural and cultivated). Our analysis of 10 enzymes revealed 18 loci, of which 10 were polymorphic (35.6%). Genetic diversity at the species and population levels were 0.200 and 0.149, respectively, with the mean for cultivated populations (0.124) being lower than for natural (wild) populations (0.181). Asexual and sexual reproduction modes, perennial habitat, and longevity all were possible factors contributing to such high diversity. An indirect estimate of the number of migrants per generation (N _m = 1.08) indicated that gene flow was not extensive among these Korean populations. Therefore, we suggest that geographical distance as well as reproductive isolation between wild and cultivated plants may play roles in shaping the population structure of this species.