ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTROLLING PHYTOPLANKTON PROCESSES IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN1

The factors controlling the distribution of phytoplankton stocks, species composition, and their physiological status in the Southern Ocean are reviewed. In the last decade, the key data sources have been observational and experimental. Together, they provide a framework to understand the complex temporal and spatial patterns of environmental control within the distinct basins and ecological provinces. High resolution remotely sensed observational data have overcome the issue of geographical remoteness. Furthermore, by exploiting seasonal and spatial differences in algal distributions, observational data have enabled the cross‐correlation of such trends with patterns in other environmental properties. Perturbation experiments have offered a mechanistic understanding to help interpret observational data by altering environmental properties under carefully controlled conditions. A consistent set of trends, on the modes of environmental control of phytoplankton processes, is now emerging across the different basins and provinces. The key determinants are light, iron, and silicic acid supply (top‐down control was not considered). However, their interplay in time and space (i.e. simultaneous limitation of phytoplankton processes) is less clear, requires further study, and is discussed. Future challenges include the need to understand better the mode(s) of environmental control on key algal functional groups via more taxon‐ and species‐specific studies. The initiation of more time‐series moorings with “smart” bio‐optical and sampling sensors are needed to define the seasonal distributions of algal taxa. Moreover, new perturbation experiments are required to investigate the influence on phytoplankton processes of projected climate‐mediated alteration of mixed layer depth and nutrient supply as widely predicted by modelers.     

CETACEAN OCCURRENCE PATTERNS IN THE AMUNDSEN AND SOUTHERN BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA SECTOR, SOUTHERN OCEAN

We conducted 239.5 h and 3,494 km of cetacean surveys in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, from 15 February to 31 March 1994; most of the area, the large portion of which was ice covered, had never before nor has it since been surveyed for cetaceans, even to the date when this paper was prepared (2006). Logistic regression and an information-theoretic approach related the occurrence of Antarctic minke whales Balaenoptera bonaerensis (the most abundant species) to whether we were in open- or pack-ice-covered pelagic or neritic waters, in or out of the marginal ice zone (MIZ), and north or south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current southern boundary. Other variables included date and distance to the MIZ and shelfbreak front. Statistical analysis showed that the probability of sighting a minke, as well as killer whale—but not the case for an index to whale density—was related to the proximity of coastal polynyas in early autumn, switching offshore to the MIZ once waters within the pack began to freeze persistently later in the season. Probability of detection was higher with distance into the MIZ. Supporting these findings, the density index was strongly related to ice concentration in an inverse relationship. The strong relationship to polynyas and the MIZ indicate that sea-ice divergence altered by decadal or longer-term climate change, as described in the recent literature, could well affect any apparent, long-term trends evident in this species' abundance if surveyed only in open or near-to-ice waters. We speculate on how the minke whale's pagophilic nature (1) could have been encouraged by large-scale industrial whaling and by competition with species more characteristic of open waters and the outer MIZ, and (2) may have protected the population somewhat during industrial whaling resulting in the much greater abundance of this species now compared to other targeted species.     

THE ROLE OF PHYTOPLANKTON SIZE ON PHOTOCHEMICAL RECOVERY DURING THE SOUTHERN OCEAN IRON EXPERIMENT1

Phytoplankton primary productivity in the Southern Ocean is controlled by complex interactions among iron, light, and grazing. This project interfaced with the Southern Ocean iron experiment (SOFeX) that created two iron‐enriched patches north and south of the Polar Front each with distinct silicic acid concentrations. We used pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry and measured the recovery of the maximum quantum yield of photochemistry (F_v/F_m) for three size fractions (whole, <5, <20 μm) and light adapted quantum yield (ΔF/F′_m) for single phytoplankton cells. The rates of recovery from iron stress were found to be unrelated to average cell size for both size‐fractioned and single‐celled measurements. The smallest cells appeared to exhibit more severe iron stress at the onset of the experiment than the larger taxa. The largest response detected in regression parameters was that of the pennate diatoms, which took only ～3.4 days to reach the maximum quantum yield, whereas the centric diatom Asteromphalus sp. reached maximum ΔF/F′_m after ～10.4 days. The north patch measurements showed a different response; the smallest cells never reached maximum ΔF/F′_m, whereas the size fraction containing the largest cells did. Single‐celled measurements made nearly 30 days after the initial iron enrichment suggested that diatoms were experiencing either silicic acid or iron limitation, whereas measurements of Phaeocystis sp. did not. These data represent the first study of in situ recovery rates of PSII for groups of diatoms, and may help elucidate the mechanisms of species change in response to environmental perturbation.     

武昌东湖枝角类种类组成与数量变动的观察

枝角类是一切幼鱼以及許多经济鱼类成鱼期的良好食料。       

RELATING PHYTOPLANKTON DYNAMICS AND PRODUCTION TO SEDIMENT RESUSPENSION IN SOUTHERN LAKE MICHIGAN

Millie, D. F.¹, Fahnenstiel, G. L.², Carrick, H. J.³, Lohrenz, S. E.⁴, & Schofield, O. M. E.^{5 1}USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA, ²NOAA-Lake Michigan Field Station, Muskegon, MI 49441, USA, ³Institute of Marine Science, University of Southern Mississippi, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA, ⁴Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14060, USA; ⁵Isttitute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, 71 Dudley Road New Brunswick NJ 08901 USA, Sediment resuspension is an annually recurrent feature during spring holomixis in southern Lake Michigan. Relationships between resuspension events and phyt-oplankton biomass, compositional dynamics, and pro-duction were evaluated during 1998 and 1999. Increased water-column light attenuation (K_PAR) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentrations corresponded with resuspension events within nearshore regions. However, neither K_PAR nor SPM corresponded with chlorophyll (Chl) a concentrations, indicating no impact of resuspension on instantaneous biomass accumulation. Diatoms and cryptophytes dominated phytoplankton assemblages and together typically comprised greater than 85% of the Chl a. The associations of SPM/K_PAR with diatom Chl a, and the inverse relationship between relative diatom and crypto-phyte Chl a corresponded with the dominance of diatoms and cryptophytes in near- and offshore waters, respectively. Moreover, a spatial variation in species composition occurred during resuspension events; small, centric diatoms exhibiting meroplanktonic life histories and large, pennate diatoms considered benthic in origin were associated with sediment resuspension whereas large, net diatoms and cryptophytes typically comprising phytoplankton of the annual spring bloom and of optically-clear, offshore waters were not. The presence of viable diatom photopigments and the abundance of small centric diatoms within the surficial sediments, established this layer as the source of meroplankton. Integral production was dramatically reduced within sediment-impacted waters; however, nearshore assemblages appeared to have greater photosynthetic capacities than offshore assemblages. Although resuspension dramatically influenced near-shore phytoplankton assemblages, it appeared to have little, if any relationship with the compositional development of the annual spring bloom.     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ABUNDANCE PATTERNS OF WATERBIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN CAPE PROVINCE. PART 2: WATERFOWL

Boshoff, A.F., Palmer, N.G. & Piper, S.E. 1991. Spatial and temporal abundance patterns of water-birds in the southern Cape Province. Part 2: Waterfowl. Ostrich 62:178-196.

Waterfowl (ducks, geese, moorhens, gallinules, coot) were counted, and water-level and water transparency measured, on a monthly basis from 1980 to 1983 or 1984, at the six waterbodies comprising the Wilderness-Sedgefield Lakes Complex, southern Cape Province. The fluctuating status of the submerged aquatic macrophytes, and the trophic status of the waterbodies, was documented. The counts reflect the monthly status o the birds, and allow the calculation of densities (birds/ha). Linear and logarithmic models aided the interpretation of the count data. Spatial and temporal patterns and trends are described, and discussed in relation to changes in water-level, water transparency and aquatic macrophyte biomass regimes in the study area. Cyclical fluctuation in Potamogeton pectinatus biomass, and Its effect on Red-knobbed Coot numbers, is emphasised. The monthly abundance peaks of some species occurred at water-bodies in a regular sequence each year.     

STRATEGIES AND RATES OF PHOTOACCLIMATION IN TWO MAJOR SOUTHERN OCEAN PHYTOPLANKTON TAXA: PHAEOCYSTIS ANTARCTICA (HAPTOPHYTA) AND FRAGILARIOPSIS CYLINDRUS (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE)1

We investigated rates and mechanisms of photoacclimation in cultures of Phaeocystis antarctica G. Karst. and Fragilariopsis cylindrus (Grunow) Willi Krieg, phytoplankton taxa that each dominate distinct areas of the Ross Sea, Antarctica. Both P. antarctica and F. cylindrus acclimated to increases in irradiance by reducing the effective size of the pigment antenna (σPSII) via xanthophyll‐cycle activity and reductions in chl. While enhanced photoprotection facilitated increases in specific growth rate and eventually led to higher light‐saturated photosynthetic rates (P^cell_m) in P. antarctica, increases in those variables were much smaller in F. cylindrus. In response to a lower irradiance, relaxation of xanthophyll‐cycle activity led to an increase in σPSII in both taxa, which occurred much more slowly in F. cylindrus. A surprising increase in specific growth rate over the first 36 h of acclimation in P. antarctica may have facilitated the significant reductions in P^cell_m observed in that taxon. In general, P. antarctica acclimated more quickly to changes in irradiance than F. cylindrus, exhibited a wider range in photosynthetic rates, but was more susceptible to photoinhibition. This acclimation strategy is consistent with growth in deeply mixed water columns with variations in irradiance that allow time for repair. In contrast, the slower acclimation rates, extensive photoprotection, and low photoinhibition exhibited by F. cylindrus suggest that it does not require the same period for repair as P. antarctica and is best suited for growth in habitats with relatively uniform irradiance, such as shallow mixed layers or sea ice.     

肇庆星湖浮游植物状况及其富营养化评价

研究了 1 996年 4月至 1 997年 7月肇庆星湖 5个子湖泊浮游植物种类和数量变化。在 1 996年 4月至 1 997年 7月 6次采样中 ,共鉴定出浮游植物 82种 ,其中绿藻门 37种 ,其次为硅藻和蓝藻门 ,优势种有鼓藻、栅藻、衣藻、席藻、直链藻、多甲藻和裸藻等。大多数采样点年平均浮游植物密度为 1 0 4 个 /L至 1 0 5个 /L,整个湖泊年平均密度为 4.2 8× 1 0 5个 /L。星湖各子湖泊全年的总氮、总磷含量分别低于 1 mg/L和 0 .1 mg/L ,以叶绿素 a、总氮、总磷、氨氮、COD和 BOD为参数的营养状态指数 (TLI) ,除波海湖外均小于 50。根据浮游植物种类和密度及综合营养状态指数评价结果 ,星湖的富营养化状况属于中营养化至富营养化之间 ,其中波海湖已达到富营养化水平 ,5个湖泊的富营养化程度由高至低依次为 :波海湖、仙女湖、里湖、青莲湖、中心湖。     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ABUNDANCE PATTERNS OF WATERBIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN CAPE PROVINCE. PART 1: DIVING AND SURFACE PREDATORS

Boshoff, A.F., Palmer, N.G. & Piper, S.E. 1991. Spatial and temporal abundance patterns of water-birds in the southern Cape Province. Part 1: Diving and surface predators. Ostrich 62:156-177.

Diving and surface feeding waterbirds (grebes, cormorants, gulls, terns, kingfishers) were counted, and water-level and water transparency measured, on a monthly basis from 1980 to 1983 or 1984, at the six waterbodies comprising the Wilderness-Sedgefield Lakes Complex, southern Cape Province. The fluctuating status of the submerged aquatic macrophytes, and the trophic status of the waterbodies was documented. The counts were considered to be reasonably accurate, allowing the calculation of densities (birds/ha). Spatial and temporal patterns and trends are described and discussed; linear and logarithmic models aided the interpretation of the data. Some species exhibited significant correlations with water-level and/or water transparency, and some exhibited abundance peaks at the waterbodies in a regular monthly sequence. Possible reasons for these phenomena are discussed.     

THE DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND SELECTED PREY OF THE HARBOR SEAL, PHOCA VITULINA CONCOLOR, IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND

The seasonal distribution and abundance of harbor seals occurring south of Maine were documented by counting the number of seals at traditional haulout locations. The average number of seals counted during each survey in Massachusetts and New Hampshire was 3,560 ± 255 (95% CI), 1983–1987. The maximum number of seals counted on any individual survey was 4,736 individuals. Fifty percent of all the surveys since January 1985 have resulted in counts greater than 4,000 seals reflecting a 27% increase in the abundance of seals in our study area since that date. Seventy-five percent of the seals in southern New England are located at haulout sites on Cape Cod and Nantucket Island. The largest aggregation of seals in the eastern United States occurs mid-winter at Monomoy Island and adjacent shoals. A single high count of 1,672 seals occurred at this site during the study period. An additional 271–374 seals were also counted in Rhode Island, Connecticut and eastern Long Island Sound during surveys conducted in March 1986 and 1987. The American sandlance Ammodytes americanus was the single dominant prey item of harbor seals in waters adjacent to Cape Cod based on the modified frequency of occurrence of each prey species in scat samples collected from three haulout sites on Cape Cod between 1984–1987. During January and February sandlance was the near exclusive prey item at Monomoy (99%, n= 80). During March and April, the frequency of Atlantic herring Clupea harengus increased in the scat samples at this site. Regional differences in the diet of seals reflect distinct prey communities throughout the study area. Since 1986, the percent occurrence and importance of sandlance in the diet of seals has decreased, reflecting an overall decrease in abundance of this prey species in waters adjacent to Cape Cod. In spite of fluctuations in abundance, and regional differences in the diet of seals throughout the study area, sandlance still comprised a minimum 55% of the total prey species of harbor seals throughout the study area.     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ABUNDANCE PATTERNS OF WATERBIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN CAPE PROVINCE. PART 3: WADING BIRDS

Boshoff, A.F., Palmer, N.G. & Piper, S.E. 1991. Spatial and temporal abundance patterns of water-birds in the southern Cape Province. Part 3: Wading birds. Ostrich 62:197-214.

Wading birds (herons, egrets, spoonbills, flamingoes and waders) were counted, and water-level and water transparency measured, on a monthly basis from 1980 to 1983 or 1984, at the six waterbodies comprising the Wilderness-Sedgefield Lakes Complex, southern Cape Province. The fluctuating status of the submerged aquatic macrophytes, and the trophic status of the waterbodies, was documented. The counts reflect the monthly status of the birds, and allow the calculation of densities (birds/ha). Linear and logarithmic models aided the interpretation of the count data. Spatial and temporal patterns and trends are described, and discussed in relation to changes in water-level, water transparency and aquatic macrophyte biomass regimes in the study area. Water-level was an important environmental parameter and was generally negatively correlated with abundance.     

THE ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF SOME MARINE PHYTOPLANKTON1

We analyzed the cellular content of C, N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Cd, and Mo in 15 marine eukaryotic phytoplankton species in culture representing the major marine phyla. All the organisms were grown under identical culture conditions, in a medium designed to allow rapid growth while minimizing precipitation of iron hydroxide. The cellular concentrations of all metals, phosphorus, and sulfur were determined by high‐resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR‐ICPMS) and those of carbon and nitrogen by a carbon hydrogen nitrogen analyzer. Accuracy of the HR‐ICPMS method was validated by comparison with data obtained with ⁵⁵Fe radioactive tracer and by a planktonic reference material. The cellular quotas (normalized to P) of trace metals and major cations in the biomass varied by a factor of about 20 among species (except for Cd, which varied over two orders of magnitude) compared with factors of 5 to 10 for major nutrients. Green algae had generally higher C, N, Fe, Zn, and Cu quotas and lower S, K, Ca, Sr, Mn, Co, and Cd quotas than coccolithophores and diatoms. Co and Cd quotas were also lower in diatoms than in coccolithophores. Although trace element quotas are influenced by a variety of growth conditions, a comparison of our results with published data suggests that the measured compositions reflect chiefly the intrinsic (i.e. genetically encoded) trace element physiology of the individual species. Published field data on the composition of the planktonic biomass fall within the range of laboratory values and are generally close to the approximate extended Redfield formula given by the average stoichiometry of our model species (excluding the hard parts): While clearly this elemental stoichiometry varies between species and, potentially, in response to changes in the chemistry of seawater, it provides a basis for examining how phytoplankton influence the relative distributions of the ensemble of major and trace elements in the ocean.     

氯化物型盐碱池塘浮游植物种类和多样性的研究

1997年 4月 5日至 1 998年 9月 1日对山东高青县赵店乡渔场盐碱池塘浮游植物的种类组成和生物量进行了研究 ,池塘盐度变动于 1 .3 6— 2 0 g/L,总碱度变动于 2 .4— 7.2 mmol/L,p H值 8— 9。采集了 3 87个浮游植物定量水样。结果表明 ,高青盐碱池塘浮游植物主要是广盐性淡水种类 ,一些是典型的盐水种。浮游植物的平均生物量为 49.90± 3 1 .92 mg/L,硅藻和裸藻占优势 ,金藻占有相当比重。无鱼对照池的浮游植物生物量较养鱼池塘低得多。     

南亚热带贫营养水库春季浮游植物群落结构与动态

2005年1~6月,通过每两周一次的高频率采样,对南亚热带贫营养水库——梅溪水库的水文、营养盐和浮游植物进行了调查,并计算水体浮游植物生物量。主要结果如下:梅溪水库浮游植物具有物种少,生物量低,以飞燕角甲藻(Ceratium hirundinella)和多甲藻(Peridinium sp.)为优势藻的特征。12次采样24个样品共检测到浮游植物42种。浮游植物在早春(1~3月)和晚春(4~6月)有显著的差别,其中每次采样浮游植物早春平均13种,晚春平均21种。浮游植物总的细胞丰度为31~273 cells·ml^-1,总生物量为0.176~2.024 mg·L^-1之间。晚春浮游植物平均生物量明显高于早春。低营养盐和弱酸性水体有利于能够垂直迁移获得营养的鞭毛藻类和其它藻类之间竞争,而使其成为整个春季优势类群。在晚春,随着水温显著增加,浮游植物丰度和生物量也明显增加,但是降雨的增加降低了水体的透明度,大大减缓了由水温上升导致生物量增长的趋势。水温是梅溪水库浮游植物变化的主要限制因子,但是降雨有明显的干扰作用。     

PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY COMPOSITION AND GENE EXPRESSION OF FUNCTIONAL GENES INVOLVED IN CARBON AND NITROGEN ASSIMILATION1

A functional gene microarray was developed and used to investigate phytoplankton community composition and gene expression in the English Channel. Genes encoding the CO₂‐fixation enzyme RUBISCO (rbcL) and the nitrate assimilation enzyme nitrate reductase (NR) representing several major groups of phytoplankton were included as oligonucleotide probes on the “phytoarray.” Five major groups of eukaryotic phytoplankton that possess the Type 1D rbcL gene were detected, both in terms of presence (DNA) and activity (rbcL gene expression). Changes in relative signal intensity among the Type 1D rbcL probes indicated a shift from diatom dominance in the spring bloom to dominance by haptophytes and flagellates later in the summer. Because of the limitations of a smaller database, NR probes detected fewer groups, but due to the greater diversity among known NR sequences, NR probes provided higher phylogenetic resolution than did rbcL probes and identified two uncultivated diatom phylotypes as the most abundant (DNA) and active (NR gene expression) in field samples. Unidentified chlorophytes and the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin were detected at both the DNA and cDNA (gene expression) levels. The reproducibility of the array was evaluated in several ways, and future directions for further improvement of probe development and sensitivity are outlined. The phytoarray provides a relatively high‐resolution, high‐throughput approach to assessing phytoplankton community composition in marine environments.     

浮游植物叶绿素与脱镁叶绿素的测定方法

叶绿素含量的测定,早已受到生理学家的重视。在生态学范畴内,浮游藻类的叶绿素含量既是浮游藻类现存量的一个指标,又是推算浮游藻类生产量的重要参量。故生态学家、水产与环境科学工作者,均日益重视叶绿素含量的测定。本文在综合国内外有关资料的基础上,结合作者的工作经验,对浮游藻类的光合色素组成、叶绿素与脱镁叶绿素的测算原理、测算方法作了详细介绍。     

THE DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF DEEPWATER MACROALGAE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA

Silvetia compressa ( J. Agardh) Serrão et al. is a common member of the upper intertidal fucoid community on the Pacific coast of America from Humboldt County, California, to Punta Baja, Baja California, Mexico. A relatively narrow range of morphological variability is exhibited by most mainland populations, regardless of latitude, but some mainland populations and all insular populations participate in a complex pattern that we have attempted to analyze. A few populations on the Monterey Peninsula in which the fronds are atypically delicate were described by Setchell & Gardner as f. gracilis , to which was assigned a population from Santa Catalina Island. After comparing populations from various parts of the range of the species, including all of the Channel Islands, we conclude that two subspecies may be recognized. In subsp. compressa , which includes f. gracilis as a growth form and occurs chiefly on the mainland, the frond is robust with long tapered receptacles. In the variant subspecies, which is chiefly insular but also occurs on the coast of northern Baja California, the typical frond has slender axes as in f. gracilis , but is more densely branched and has short ellipsoidal receptacles. Comparison of nucleotide sequences from the ITS regions of rDNA revealed an identical pattern for subsp. compressa from Baja California and central California, including populations assignable to f. gracilis. By contrast, the pattern for the variant subspecies differed by 2 bp (0.3%) from that of subsp. compressa.     

UV RADIATION,PHOSPHORUS, AND THEIR COMBINED EFFECTS ON THE TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION OF PHYTOPLANKTON IN A BOREAL LAKE1

We examined how UV radiation and phosphorus (P) affect the taxonomic composition, abundance, and biomass of phytoplankton in an oligotrophic boreal lake. We exposed phytoplankton to three different solar radiation regimes (PAR + UV‐A radiation [UVAR]+ UV‐B radiation [UVBR], PAR + UVAR, and PAR only) and to five levels of P. The biomass of small chrysophytes was reduced by 350% after exposure to PAR + UVAR + UVBR compared with PAR only. No other taxa were found to be negatively affected by exposure to UVBR. Several taxa (e.g. Chry‐ sochromulina laurentiana Kling) were sensitive to UVAR, whereas others (e.g. Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) Kutzing) were not affected by UV radiation exposure. Principal components analysis ordination separated phytoplankton that were negatively affected by UV radiation and/or positively affected by P treatments (e.g. small chrysophytes, Cryptomonas rostratiformis, T. flocculosa) from those that generally were unaffected by either treatment (e.g. desmids, some Cyanobacteria). Richness, Shannon‐Weaver diversity, and evenness were significantly higher in phytoplankton communities shielded from UVAR and UVBR. The relationship between diversity and richness was positive in all phytoplankton samples except in those exposed to UVBR. Thus, UVBR‐exposed phytoplankton communities were dominated by a few species even though the number of taxa remained relatively unchanged. Consequently, alterations in the UV environments of lakes resulting from climate warming (e.g. drought) and land‐use change (e.g. increased P export) will likely promote shifts in the community composition of lake phytoplankton.