CHINESE VISITORS TO 18TH CENTURY BRITAIN AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO ITS CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE

This essay introduces three 18th century Chinese visitors to Britain, analysing the important role they played in cross‐cultural intellectual and artistic contact between the two countries. Loum Kiqua, a merchant, arrived in London in 1756. He gave the first known performance on a Chinese musical instrument in the West. Chitqua, a portrait modeller who arrived in 1769, exhibited at the newly‐established Royal Academy (becoming the first named Chinese artist to have a work shown in an overseas exhibit). Whang at Tong (Whang Atong, Huang Yadong), was only in his early 20s at the time of his arrival in England in August 1774, but he played a significant role in the transfer of botanical knowledge from China to the West through his connections with John Bradby Blake in Canton and his father John Blake in London.     

JOHN BRADBY BLAKE'S MULTIMEDIA DICTIONARY: FROM WORDLIST TO WORLDVIEW

The unique illustrated and annotated ‘Chinese‐English Vocabulary’ 1 (hereafter ‘Vocabulary’) in the John Bradby Blake collection in the library of the Oak Spring Garden Foundation is described, along with the composition of individual entries and their arrangement. Analysis of the contents suggests that the Vocabulary was composed in a multi‐layered process beginning with the illustration and main Chinese characters, which were then annotated by two other individuals, most likely John Bradby Blake himself and perhaps Whang at Tong. The layers of the Vocabulary document an attempt at cross‐cultural exchange, with equivalences being proposed, explanations offered, and meanings contested. Situating the Vocabulary in the history of Chinese language learning and the more general history of bilingual wordlists reveals various types of precedents and related material, but it is unique in the history of Chinese‐English lexicography and what it has to teach us about the worldview of its authors and mid‐Qing intellectual knowledge exchange between British and Southern Chinese.     

THE JOHN BRADBY BLAKE DRAWINGS IN THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM,LONDON: JOSEPH BANKS PUTS THEM TO WORK

In the last quarter of the 18th century, Joseph Banks came into possession of a set of botanically accurate, western‐influenced, drawings of Chinese plants, executed in Canton by a Chinese artist and supervised by John Bradby Blake, an East India Company supercargo. Banks realized that these drawings, now in the Natural History Museum, London, would help his collectors in Canton accurately identify the Chinese species he sought as living plants for the Royal Gardens at Kew. Banks commissioned a collector's manual whose illustrations were based on the Blake drawings. In the early 19th century, William Kerr used this manual (now unfortunately lost) to continue the Blake practice – these drawings are at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. John Reeves, many of whose drawings are at the Royal Horticultural Society, used Kerr's commissions to produce the next generation of botanical art in Canton.     

‘THOROUGHLY CHINESE’: REVEALING THE PLANTS OF THE HONG MERCHANTS' GARDENS THROUGH JOHN BRADBY BLAKE'S PAINTINGS

The paintings in the John Bradby Blake collection should be admired for their sophisticated artistry and accurate depiction of botanical features, but they are also significant because they reveal the diversity of plants grown in the gardens of Chinese in Guangzhou (Canton). They therefore provide a precious insight into a relatively neglected topic in Chinese garden history, namely the cultivation of plants in gardens. This paper identifies one of the gardens from which the plants depicted by John Bradby Blake might have come, and looks at how those plants were used and appreciated in their Chinese context.     

INTRODUCTION

The Oak Spring Garden Library, a legacy of Rachel Lambert Mellon (1910–2014) and now part of the Oak Spring Garden Foundation, contains the archive of John Bradby Blake (1745–1773), a young trader who worked for the British East India Company in the late 1760s and early 1770s in Canton (Guangzhou) and Macau. The archive provides an unusually detailed insight into Bradby Blake's life and botanical work, including his attempts to send living plants back to England. The archive also contains almost 200 pieces of exquisitely detailed early British‐Chinese hybrid botanical art, which Bradby Blake prepared with a Chinese artist, Mauk‐Sow‐U. With their emphasis on botanical detail and careful depiction of the detailed structure of flowers, these illustrations are as accurate as any produced at this relatively early date in the post‐Linnaean development of botanical science.     

THE LIFE AND WORK OF JOHN BRADBY BLAKE

John Bradby Blake (1745–1773) first visited Canton as a supercargo for the British East India Company in 1767/68. He returned as a resident supercargo in July 1769. Between then and his untimely death in 1773, in collaboration with one or more Chinese artists, he produced over 150 paintings of Chinese plants, many of which are illustrated in exquisite botanical detail. These paintings and the associated archives in the Oak Spring Garden Library at the Oak Spring Garden Foundation (OSGF) provide a detailed glimpse into an interesting life and a previously little known dimension of the social and scientific interactions between the British and Chinese in the late 18th century.     

FOLLOWING THE THREAD TO OAK SPRING: THE AFTERLIFE OF JOHN BRADBY BLAKE'S CANTON DRAWINGS

For more than 175 years, the remarkable botanical drawings made in Canton by a Chinese artist working with the British East India Company supercargo John Bradby Blake, were handed down from generation to generation within the same family. They first appeared publicly in 1959 when the estate of Sir Frederick Cripps of Ampney Park, Gloucestershire, came up for auction. A Bristol art dealer bought the drawings, but on the other side of the Atlantic, Paul Mellon had other ideas for them. This article follows the trail from London, via Ampney Park and Bristol, to Oak Spring, Virginia.     

科技英语的特点及翻译技巧

科技英语不同于其他文体,其具有客观、准确、严密、简洁、逻辑性强的特点,译者在翻译时要做到既忠实于原文,又能准确通顺地把原文意思表达出来。这不仅需要译者具有一定的外语水平、扎实的汉语语言功底,还要了解相关的专业知识及掌握一定的翻译技巧。根据科技英语的特点,从词类的转换、分译、合译几个方面来探讨科技英语的翻译方法和技巧。     

Product Diversity and Spectrum of Choice in Hospital ePrescribing Systems in England

Background

ePrescribing systems have considerable potential for improving healthcare quality and safety. With growing expectations about the benefits of such systems, there is evidence of widespread plans to implement these systems in hospitals in England where hitherto they have had a low uptake. Given the international drive away from developing home-grown to systems to procuring commercial applications, we aimed to identify available ePrescribing systems in England and to use the findings to develop a taxonomy of the systems offered by suppliers.

Methods and Findings

We undertook a scoping review of the published and grey literature, and conducted expert interviews with vendors, healthcare organisations and national ePrescribing experts in order to identify the spectrum of available systems, identify and map their key features, and then iteratively develop and validate a taxonomy of commercial ePrescribing systems available to English hospitals. There is a wide range of available systems including 13 hospital-wide applications and a range of specialty systems. These commercial applications can be grouped into four sub-categories: standalone systems, modules within integrated systems, functionalities spread over several modules, and specialty systems. The findings also reveal that apart from four packaged applications (two of which are specialty systems), all other systems have none or less than two live implementations across England.

Conclusions

The wide range of products developed in the last few years by different national and international suppliers, and the low uptake of these products by English hospitals indicate that the English ePrescribing market is still in its infancy. This market is undergoing rapid cycles of change, both with respect to the number of suppliers and their diversity of offerings. Constant renewal of knowledge is needed on the status of this evolving market, encompassing the products development and adoption, to assist implementation decisions and facilitate market maturity.     

Reading relations backwards

It would hazardous for an anthropologist to read back from the present to admonitions from nearly a century ago that the whole world is kin or that all forms of life are related. It would be even more hazardous to read back from the present to three centuries ago. None the less, a contemporary issue in social anthropology makes the risk conceivably worth taking. This is to do with the role that generic terms play in knowledge‐making, and specifically in what we know about kinship. Pondering on the adoption of a generic, ‘relation’, in the acknowledgement of kinspersons in England around the time of the scientific revolution, this article points to a precise way in which the generic might have been useful for both kin‐makers and knowledge‐makers. Describing relations without having to specify the entities involved served both. This speculative exercise might be of interest in current contexts where appeals are made to the relational and relationality.     

Reconstructing the invasion history of Heracleum persicum (Apiaceae) into Europe

Sparse, incomplete and inappropriate historical records of invasive species often hamper invasive species management interventions. Population genetic analyses of invaders might provide a suitable context for the identification of their source populations and possible introduction routes. Here, we describe the population genetics of Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch and trace its route of introduction into Europe. Microsatellite markers revealed a significantly higher genetic diversity of H. persicum in its native range, and the loss of diversity in the introduced range may be attributed to a recent genetic bottleneck. Bayesian cluster analysis on regional levels identified three and two genetic clusters in the native and the introduced ranges, respectively. A global structure analysis revealed two worldwide distinct genetic groups: one primarily in Iran and Denmark, the other primarily in Norway. There were also varying degrees of admixture in England, Sweden, Finland and Latvia. Approximate Bayesian computation indicated two independent introductions of H. persicum from Iran to Europe: the first one in Denmark and the second one in England. Finland was subsequently colonized by English populations. In contrast to the contemporary hypothesis of English origin of Norwegian populations, we found Finland to be a more likely source for Norwegian populations, a scenario supported by higher estimated histor‐ical migration from Finland to Norway. Genetic diversity per se is not a primary determinant of invasiveness in H. persicum. Our results indicate that, due to either pre‐adaptations or rapid local adaptations, introduced populations may have acqu‐ired invasiveness after subsequent introductions, once a suitable environment was encountered.     

A temperature shock can lead to trans‐generational immune priming in the Red Flour Beetle,Tribolium castaneum

Trans‐generational immune priming (TGIP) describes the transfer of immune stimulation to the next generation. As stress and immunity are closely connected, we here address the question whether trans‐generational effects on immunity and resistance can also be elicited by a nonpathogen stress treatment of parents. General stressors have been shown to induce immunity to pathogens within individuals. However, to our knowledge, it is as of yet unknown whether stress can also induce trans‐generational effects on immunity and resistance. We exposed a parental generation (mothers, fathers, or both parents) of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, a species where TGIP has been previously been demonstrated, to either a brief heat or cold shock and examined offspring survival after bacterial infection with the entomopathogen Bacillus thuringiensis. We also studied phenoloxidase activity, a key enzyme of the insect innate immune system that has previously been demonstrated to be up‐regulated upon TGIP. We quantified parental fecundity and offspring developmental time to evaluate whether trans‐generational priming might have costs. Offspring resistance was found to be significantly increased when both parents received a cold shock. Offspring phenoloxidase activity was also higher when mothers or both parents were cold‐shocked. By contrast, parental heat shock reduced offspring phenoloxidase activity. Moreover, parental cold or heat shock delayed offspring development. In sum, we conclude that trans‐generational priming for resistance could not only be elicited by pathogens or pathogen‐derived components, but also by more general cues that are indicative of a stressful environment. The interaction between stress responses and the immune system might play an important role also for trans‐generational effects.     

THE ONGOING CHARITY OF ORGAN DONATION. CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH SUNNI FATWAS ON ORGAN DONATION AND BLOOD TRANSFUSION

Background: Empirical studies in Muslim communities on organ donation and blood transfusion show that Muslim counsellors play an important role in the decision process. Despite the emerging importance of online English Sunni fatwas, these fatwas on organ donation and blood transfusion have hardly been studied, thus creating a gap in our knowledge of contemporary Islamic views on the subject. Method: We analysed 70 English Sunni e‐fatwas and subjected them to an in‐depth text analysis in order to reveal the key concepts in the Islamic ethical framework regarding organ donation and blood transfusion. Results: All 70 fatwas allow for organ donation and blood transfusion. Autotransplantation is no problem at all if done for medical reasons. Allotransplantation, both from a living and a dead donor, appears to be possible though only in quite restricted ways. Xenotransplantation is less often mentioned but can be allowed in case of necessity. Transplantation in general is seen as an ongoing form of charity. Nearly half of the fatwas allowing blood transfusion do so without mentioning any restriction or problem whatsoever. The other half of the fatwas on transfusion contain the same conditional approval as found in the arguments pro organ transplantation. Conclusion: Our findings are very much in line with the international literature on the subject. We found two new elements: debates on the definition of the moment of death are hardly mentioned in the English Sunni fatwas and organ donation and blood transfusion are presented as an ongoing form of charity.     

JOHN BRADBY BLAKE,THE CHINESE TALLOW TREE AND THE INFRASTRUCTURE OF BOTANICAL EXPERIMENTATION

Recent studies of the spread of the invasive Chinese tallow tree, , Triadica sebifera (L.) Small, downplay the role of the dissemination of seeds in the 18th century compared with the impact of 20th century state‐sponsored agriculture. But the long‐term development of Chinese, then European and American botanical knowledge, even in cases like the tallow tree, can be shown to have enabled and legitimized ecological expansion and large scale environmental experimentation. John Bradby Blake, who obtained, experimented with, described and illustrated tallow tree seed in the 1770s, played an important role in the dissemination of tallow trees to the southeastern American colonies, the British Caribbean and northeast India.     

Large‐scale,long‐term trends in British river macroinvertebrates

Rivers are among the world's most modified ecosystems, with poor water quality representing a prominent problem for over 200 years, especially in urban areas. In Western Europe, however, industrial decline, tighter regulation and improved wastewater treatment have combined over recent decades to create conditions conducive to extensive restoration and positive biological change. Here, we evaluate the river macroinvertebrate fauna of England and Wales in relation to water quality, physical habitat and climate over almost two decades. We predicted that biological recovery would be characterized by: (i) greater taxon richness and prevalence of pollution‐sensitive taxa, (ii) larger changes in more heavily urbanized catchments, and (iii) temporal trends in assemblage structure that correlated with improving water quality. Family level richness increased on average by nearly 20% during 1991–2008, accompanied by a widespread shift towards taxa characteristic of well‐oxygenated and less polluted waters. Changes were largest in the most urbanized catchments. A combination of natural gradients and anthropogenic pressures explained the variation among sites, whereas temporal changes correlated with improving water quality and variations in discharge. Positive trends were not universal, however, and there was localized deterioration in some streams draining upland areas and in the lowland south east. Our results are consistent with a large‐scale ecological recovery of English and Welsh rivers since 1990, probably continuing a trend from the mid‐20th century. Based on these results, we suggest: (i) freshwater communities are resilient to long‐term anthropogenic pressures, (ii) biodiversity benefits can arise from investment and long‐term restoration intended largely to enhance ecosystem services such as drinking water and sanitary concerns, and (iii) long‐term monitoring data collected for statutory purposes–based in this case on nearly 50 000 samples–can address scientific questions at spatial and temporal extents seldom achieved in research programmes.     

Ignoring non‐English‐language studies may bias ecological meta‐analyses

Meta‐analysis plays a crucial role in syntheses of quantitative evidence in ecology and biodiversity conservation. The reliability of estimates in meta‐analyses strongly depends on unbiased sampling of primary studies. Although earlier studies have explored potential biases in ecological meta‐analyses, biases in reported statistical results and associated study characteristics published in different languages have never been tested in environmental sciences. We address this knowledge gap by systematically searching published meta‐analyses and comparing effect‐size estimates between English‐ and Japanese‐language studies included in existing meta‐analyses. Of the 40 published ecological meta‐analysis articles authored by those affiliated to Japanese institutions, we find that three meta‐analysis articles searched for studies in the two languages and involved sufficient numbers of English‐ and Japanese‐language studies, resulting in four eligible meta‐analyses (i.e., four meta‐analyses conducted in the three meta‐analysis articles). In two of the four, effect sizes differ significantly between the English‐ and Japanese‐language studies included in the meta‐analyses, causing considerable changes in overall mean effect sizes and even their direction when Japanese‐language studies are excluded. The observed differences in effect sizes are likely attributable to systematic differences in reported statistical results and associated study characteristics, particularly taxa and ecosystems, between English‐ and Japanese‐language studies. Despite being based on a small sample size, our findings suggest that ignoring non‐English‐language studies may bias outcomes of ecological meta‐analyses, due to systematic differences in study characteristics and effect‐size estimates between English‐ and non‐English languages. We provide a list of actions that meta‐analysts could take in the future to reduce the risk of language bias.     

THE BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY,JOHN BRADBY BLAKE AND THEIR INTERESTS IN SPICES,COTTON AND TEA

The British East India Company was founded to compete with the Dutch in the lucrative trade in spices, but the Company soon abandoned this attempt and concentrated instead on trading cotton goods from the Indian subcontinent, initially to Britain, but subsequently to China in part‐exchange for tea. Dutch control of spice prices and the drain on Company finances of paying the Chinese for ever‐increasing quantities of tea led to attempts to introduce some of the species concerned to British colonies with appropriate climates. As the Company's resident supercargo in Canton, John Bradby Blake collected and sent back to Britain various species for introduction to the Americas, and drew and painted these and many others. Few of these attempted introductions succeeded, but the surviving paintings constitute his lasting legacy.     

Chronic stress in superb fairy‐wrens occupying remnant woodlands: Are noisy miners to blame?

Interactions between competing species may be intensified when they are restricted to small patches of remnant habitat, potentially increasing physiological stress in individuals. The effects of interspecific competition on stress in wildlife remain largely unexplored. In Australia, remnant woodlands are often dominated by aggressive honeyeaters, especially the noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala). Harassment of smaller birds by miners may result in their exclusion from suitable woodland habitat. We tested whether the presence of noisy miners is also associated with elevated stress in a model species of small passerine bird, the superb fairy‐wren (Malurus cyaneus). We sampled wrens from six sites, three remnant woodlands with noisy miners and three larger fragments of reserved habitat without noisy miners. Differential white blood cell counts were used to infer levels of chronic stress. We also assessed variation in body condition and the prevalence of blood parasites (Haemoproteus spp.) to test for associations between stress and parasitemia. The mean heterophil‐to‐lymphocyte (H:L) ratio was 1.8 × higher among superb fairy‐wrens living in miner‐dominated woodlands, suggesting higher levels of chronic stress. Individuals with higher stress appeared to be in poorer condition, as indicated by fat scores and residual body mass. Prevalence of blood parasites was generally high and was highest in reserved habitat (59%) where miners were absent. Birds with blood parasites living in these habitats had higher H:L ratios but the intensity of infection and H:L ratio was inversely related. Our results suggest that birds persisting in the presence of noisy miners might experience chronic stress, but further study is necessary to separate the relative importance of noisy miner aggression from other potential stressors in small patches of degraded woodland. Stress induced by interspecific aggression should be considered in future studies of wildlife living in remnant vegetation.     

细胞生物学双语教学的探索及思考

双语教学是我国教育改革的一项全新尝试,双语教学是指在教材使用、课堂讲授、课程考试等教学环节同时使用汉语和非母语并以外语为主要教学语言的教学活动,其最终目标是学习者能同时使用母语和外语进行思维,成为既懂专业又懂外语的国际性人才;细胞生物学发展迅速,是一门前沿性、国际性课程;对细胞生物学进行双语教学,使学生在掌握专业知识的同时,提高了英语水平,能满足学生查阅英文文献、写作专业英语文章、进行英语交流的需要,我们对细胞生物学双语教学进行尝试与探索,通过选择合适教材,保证教师师资力量,运用合理的教学方法,建设素材库和网络课程等方面进行努力,取得了较好的效果,提高了教学质量,为培养高素质的人才打好基础。