Cell surface targeting of heat shock protein gp96 induces dendritic cell maturation and antitumor immunity.

gp96 is a residential heat shock protein of the endoplasmic reticulum that has been implicated in the activation of dendritic cells (DCs) for the initiation of adaptive immunity. By genetic targeting of gp96 onto the cell surface, we demonstrate that direct access of gp96 to DCs induces their maturation, resulting in secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta, IL-12, and chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and up-regulation of the expression of MHC class I, MHC class II, CD80, CD86, and CD40. Furthermore, surface expression of gp96 on tumor cells renders them regressive via a T lymphocyte-dependent mechanism. This work reinforces the notion that gp96 is an endogenous DC activator and unveils that the context in which Ag is delivered to the immune system, in this case surface expression of gp96, has profound influence on immunity. It also establishes a principle of bridging innate and adaptive immunity for cancer immunotherapy by surface targeting of an intracellular heat shock protein.     

Evolution of the immunomodulatory role of the heat shock protein gp96.

In mammals, certain heat shock proteins (hsps) participate in specialized responses to stressors associated with pathogens or tumors, and as such, act as agents of immune surveillance interacting with both innate and adaptive immunity. We are investigating the conservation of this role throughout the class of vertebrates. We have shown that in Xenopus as in mammals, gp96, the major resident of the endoplasmic reticulum, generates MHC-restricted thymus-dependent immunity in vivo and CR in vitro against minor histocompatibility (H) antigens. By as yet unclear mechanisms that may involve classical MHC-unrestricted cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, gp96 also elicits peptide-specific responses against MHC-class I-negative tumors in adult frogs that may involve cytotoxic NK, MHC-unrestricted CD8+ T and NK/T cells. In naturally MHC class I-deficient but immunocompetent Xenopus larvae, gp96 also generates an innate type of anti-tumor response that is independent of chaperoned peptides. Finally, in a subset of Xenopus sIgM+ B cells, a substantial fraction of gp96 is directed to the cell surface by an active process that is upregulated by bacterial stimulation. This may allow gp96 to access the extracellular compartment without necrosis. Given the dual abilities of gp96 to chaperone antigenic peptides and to modulate innate immune responses, we propose that stimulated B cells that are up-regulating surface gp96 can directly interact with antigen presenting cells (APC) and/or T helper (Th) cells to trigger or amplify immune responses.     

Cell surface exposure of phosphatidylserine during apoptosis is phylogenetically conserved

Exposure of the aminophospholipid phosphatidylserine at the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane by apoptotic cells can trigger phagocytic removal of these dying cells. This functionality of phosphatidylserine exposure in the process of phagocytosis is indicated by in vitro studies of mammalian and insect phagocytes. We have studied the in vivo distribution of cell-surface exposed phosphatidylserine by injecting biotinylated Annexin V, a Ca 2+ -dependent phosphatidyl-serine binding protein, into viable mouse and chick embryos and Drosophila pupae. The apparent binding of Annexin V to cells with a morphology which is characteristicof apoptosis and which was present in regions of developmental cell death indicates that phosphatidylserine exposure by apoptotic cells is a phylogenetically conserved mechanism.     

TLR4 hyperresponsiveness via cell surface expression of heat shock protein gp96 potentiates suppressive function of regulatory T cells

As one of the main mediators of the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response, heat shock protein gp96 is also an obligate chaperone for multiple TLRs including TLR4. We demonstrated recently that enforced cell surface expression of gp96 in a transgenic (Tg) mouse (96tm-Tg) conferred hyperresponsiveness to LPS and induced TLR4-dependent lupus-like autoimmune diseases. In this study, we investigated the function of CD4(+)CD25(+) Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (T(reg)) in these mice in light of the important roles of T(reg) in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance against self-Ag as well as the increasing appreciation of TLR signaling on the regulation of T(reg). We found that the development of T(reg) was not impaired in 96tm-Tg mice. Contrary to the prediction of dampened T(reg) activity, we discovered that the suppressive functions of T(reg) were increased in 96tm-Tg mice. Inactivation of T(reg) during the neonatal stage of life exacerbated not only organ-specific diseases but also systemic autoimmune diseases. By crossing 96tm-Tg mice into the TLR4 null background, we demonstrated the critical roles of TLR4 in the amplification of T(reg) suppressive function. These findings illustrate that gp96 plays dual roles in regulating immune responses by augmenting proinflammatory responses and inducing T(reg) function, both of which are dependent on its ability to chaperone TLR4. Our study provides strong support to the notion of compensatory T(reg) activation by TLR ligation to dampen inflammation and autoimmune diseases.     

N-糖基化修饰对热休克蛋白gp96免疫学功能的影响

文中旨在以N-糖基化位点突变的重组热休克蛋白gp96为对象,研究N-糖基化修饰对其免疫功能的影响。首先利用昆虫表达系统表达野生型和突变型gp96蛋白,并检测其糖基化水平。进一步通过体外和体内实验,利用流式细胞术和酶联免疫吸附试验 (Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay,ELISA) 检测小鼠CD8+IFN-γ+ T细胞亚群和IFN-γ的分泌,查明糖基化对gp96抗原呈递功能的影响,进一步用ATPase试剂盒检测gp96的ATPase活性。最后通过小鼠免疫实验探究糖基化对gp96疫苗佐剂功能和活化流感疫苗特异性T细胞的影响。结果显示,N-糖基化修饰位点突变后,重组gp96蛋白总含糖量下降了27.8%。与野生型重组蛋白相比,突变gp96的抗原呈递能力减弱,同时ATPase活性明显降低。同时与野生型重组gp96相比,突变gp96佐剂活化流感疫苗特异性T细胞水平也明显减少。这些结果表明,N-糖基化修饰参与调节gp96的ATPase活性和抗原呈递功能,进而影响其疫苗佐剂功能,为开发基于gp96的佐剂疫苗提供了依据。     

Biophysical analysis of the endoplasmic reticulum-resident chaperone/heat shock protein gp96/GRP94 and its complex with peptide antigen

Animals vaccinated with heat shock protein (HSP)--peptide complexes develop specific protective immunity against cancers from which the HSPs were originally isolated. This autologous specific immunity has been demonstrated using a number of HSP--peptide antigen complexes. A prototypical HSP-based cancer vaccine is the gp96--peptide antigen complex, which is currently undergoing human clinical trials. Here, we analyzed the structure of a recombinant wild-type and a mutant gp96 protein and their peptide complexes using a number of biophysical techniques. Gel filtration chromatography, dynamic light scattering, and equilibrium analytical ultracentrifugation demonstrated that both a wild-type gp96 and a gp96 mutant lacking a dimerization domain formed higher order structures. More detailed analysis using scanning transmission electron microscopy indicated that both the wild-type and dimerization deletion mutant gp96 protein were organized, unexpectedly, into large aggregates. Size distributions ranged from dimers to octamers and higher. Circular dichroism and intrinsic Trp fluorescence suggested that the gp96 dimerization domain deletion mutant protein was more compact than the wild-type gp96. A fluorescent peptide antigen was synthesized, and the peptide-binding properties of wild-type and the dimerization domain deletion mutant gp96 were studied. Fluorescence lifetime and anisotropy decay showed that the bound antigenic peptide was located in a hydrophobic pocket, with considerable free space for the rotation of the probe. Deletion of the dimerization domain affected the peptide-binding microenvironment, although peptide-binding affinity was reduced by only a small extent. Peptide--gp96 complexes were extremely stable, persisting for many days in the cold. The extraordinary stability of peptide--gp96 complexes and the plasticity of the peptide-binding pocket support the proposed relay of diverse peptides to MHC and/or other molecules via molecular recognition.     

Cell signaling and heat shock protein expression

Exposure of cells and organs to heat shock is associated with numerous changes in various cellular metabolic parameters and overexpression of proteins collectively known as heat shock proteins (HSP). In this communication we review the cell-signaling events that are altered in response to heat shock as they relate to the subsequent induction of HSP 70 kd (HSP-70) expression. We also review the mechanisms by which HSP-70 is involved in conferring cytoprotective effects. The possibility of altering HSP expression through manipulations of the cell-signal process has clinical importance.The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of the authors and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Department of the Army or Department of Defense.     

PEG修饰有效提高热休克蛋白gp96抑制性多肽抗乳腺癌的功能

乳腺癌是女性恶性肿瘤中发病率最高的肿瘤,严重威胁女性生命健康。其中三阴性乳腺癌因其特殊的生理学特点,成为乳腺癌中预后最差的亚型,因此急需寻找新的靶点进行治疗来提高患者预后及生存率。多项研究表明,热休克蛋白gp96在多种癌细胞的膜表面过表达,且胞膜gp96与乳腺癌的恶性程度与不良预后密切相关,因此其可能是乳腺癌治疗的新靶点。前期研究根据gp96的结构,开发一种靶向胞膜gp96 ATP结合区的α螺旋肽p37。虽然p37多肽作用位点专一,但其在体内容易被降解,因此本研究将多肽的N端或C端分别偶联PEG₂₀₀₀或PEG₅₀₀₀,得到4个具有抑瘤功能的PEG多肽：mPEG₂₀₀₀CY、mPEG₅₀₀₀CY、mPEG₂₀₀₀LC和mPEG₅₀₀₀LC。它们可以抑制乳腺癌细胞SK-BR-3的增殖和侵袭,其中抑制效果最明显的是mPEG₂₀₀₀CY。经测定,mPEG₂₀₀₀CY在体内的半衰期较多肽p37明显延长,且有效抑制三阴性乳...     

Effects of heat shock protein gp96 on human dendritic cell maturation and CTL expansion

We reported previously that heat shock protein gp96 and its N-terminal fragment were able to stimulate CTL expansion specific for a HBV peptide (SYVNTNMGL) in BALB/c mice. Here we characterized the adjuvant effects of gp96 on human HLA-A2 restricted T cells. Full-length gp96 isolated from healthy human liver and recombinant fragments both from prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells were analyzed for their ability to stimulate maturation of human dendritic cells. It was found that in vitro these proteins were capable of maturating human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC) isolated from healthy donors as well as from HBV-positive, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients. In HLA-A2.1/Kb transgenic mice, gp96 and the recombinant fragments were found to augment CTL response specific for the HBcAg(18-27) FLPSDFFPSV peptide of hepatitis B virus.     

Association of peptides with heat shock protein gp96 occurs in vivo and not after cell lysis.

Immunization of mice and rats with gp96 preparations isolated from syngeneic cancers has been shown to elicit protective immunity to a number of cancers. The specific immunogenicity of gp96 preparations derives from the antigenic peptides chaperoned by the gp96 molecule and not from gp96 molecules per se. Studies reported here demonstrate that the association of peptides with gp96 occurs in vivo and is not a procedural artifact which occurs in vitro after cell lysis. This demonstration has a bearing on the proposed functional role of HSP peptide association in antigen processing and presentation by MHC I molecules.     

Cell surface expression of heat shock proteins and the immune response

No Abstract Available     

The heat shock protein gp96: a receptor-targeted cross-priming carrier and activator of dendritic cells

Heat shock proteins like gp96 (grp94) are able to induce specific cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) responses against cells from which they originate and are currently studied in clinical trials for use in immunotherapy of tumors. We have recently demonstrated that gp96 binds to at least one yet unidentified receptor restricted to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) like dendritic cells (DCs) but not to T cells. Moreover we have shown, that for CTL activation by gp96-chaperoned peptides receptor-mediated uptake of gp96 by APCs is required. Lately, we have discovered a second function of gp96 when interacting with professional APCs. Gp96 is able to mediate maturation of DCs as determined by upregulation of MHC class II, CD86 and CD83 molecules, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12 and TNF-alpha and enhanced T-cell simulatory capacity. Furthermore, the gp96 receptor(s) are down-regulated on mature DCs, suggesting that the gp96 receptor(s) behave similar to other endocytic receptors like CD36, mannose receptor etc. Our findings now provide additional evidence for the remarkable immunogenicity of gp96: first, the existence of specific gp96 receptors on APCs and second, the capacity to activate dendritic cells which is strictly required to enable these highly sophisticated APCs to prime CTL responses.     

高剂量热休克蛋白gp96通过激活调节性T细胞预防1型糖尿病

旨在以非肥胖糖尿病(Non-obese diabetic,NOD)小鼠为动物模型,研究高剂量昆虫细胞表达的重组热休克蛋白gp96(Recombinant gp96,rgp96)对1型糖尿病(Type 1 diabetes,T1D)的预防作用。以高剂量rgp96免疫NOD小鼠,用血糖仪监测小鼠血糖值,用流式细胞术检测小鼠脾脏CD4~+CD25~+Foxp3~+调节性T细胞(Regulatory T cells,Tregs)亚群频率,然后用一系列体外实验探究高剂量rgp96对Tregs的影响。结果显示高剂量rgp96免疫有效地预防或延缓小鼠T1D发病,免疫诱导Tregs数量明显增加。体外实验发现rgp96蛋白促进Tregs增殖,诱导Foxp3表达上调和IL-10分泌增加。研究结果为开发基于rgp96的新型T1D预防和治疗性疫苗提供了依据。     

Hansenula polymorpha expressed heat shock protein gp96 exerts potent T cell activation activity as an adjuvant

Previous studies together with ours showed that heat shock protein gp96 as an adjuvant induces antigen specific T cell responses against cancer and infectious diseases. However, at present there is no efficient method to obtain high amount of full-length gp96 by in vitro expression. Here, we used the yeast Hansenula polymorpha as an efficient host for gp96 recombinant protein production. The transformant clones with highly expressed recombinant proteins were screened and selected by measuring the halo size which indicates enzymatic hydrolysis of starch in the medium. High-level production of gp96 (around 150 mg/mL) was achieved by using high-cell density fed-batch cultivations. We showed that peptide binding of the recombinant protein has similar specificity and intrinsic binding parameters as that of the native gp96. We next examined the self-assembly properties and high-order structures of the recombinant protein. Moreover, the H. polymorpha expressed recombinant gp96 can effectively induce HBV-specific CTL response in immunized mice while Escherichia coli-expressed gp96 cannot. Our results therefore may provide bases for structure and functional studies of gp96 and thereby potentially expedite the development of gp96-based vaccines for immunotherapy of cancer or infectious diseases.     

pH-dependent structural modulation is conserved in the human small heat shock protein HSBP1

The holdase activity and oligomeric propensity of human small heat shock proteins (sHSPs) are regulated by environmental factors. However, atomic-level details are lacking for the mechanisms by which stressors alter sHSP responses. We previously demonstrated that regulation of HSPB5 is mediated by a single conserved histidine over a physiologically relevant pH range of 6.5–7.5. Here, we demonstrate that HSPB1 responds to pH via a similar mechanism through pH-dependent structural changes that are induced via protonation of the structurally analogous histidine. Results presented here show that acquisition of a positive charge, either by protonation of His124 or its substitution by lysine, reduces the stability of the dimer interface of the α-crystallin domain, increases oligomeric size, and modestly increases chaperone activity. Our results suggest a conserved mechanism of pH-dependent structural regulation among the human sHSPs that possess the conserved histidine, although the functional consequences of the structural modulations vary for different sHSPs.     

Specific immunogenicity of heat shock protein gp96 derives from chaperoned antigenic peptides and not from contaminating proteins

The peptide-binding property of MHC is central to adaptive immunological functions. A similar property of heat shock proteins (HSPs) hsp70 and hsp90 has been implicated in Ag presentation by MHC and in cross-priming. The peptide-binding pocket of hsp70 has been characterized structurally and functionally and a peptide-binding site in gp96 (of hsp90 family) has been defined. Nonetheless, questions persist whether the specific immunogenicity of HSP preparations derives from the peptides chaperoned by the HSPs or by proteins contaminating the HSP preparations. Because absolute purity of a protein preparation is a metaphysical concept, other approaches are necessary to address the question. In this study, we demonstrate that the specific immunogenicity of gp96 preparations isolated from cells expressing beta-galactosidase derives from the MHC I epitope precursors associated with the gp96 and not from contaminating beta-galactosidase protein nor unassociated fragments derived from it. Although the observations here are limited to a single HSP and antigenic peptides chaperoned by it, they can be extended broadly.