A left-handed alpha-helix containing both L- and D-amino acids: the solution structure of the antimicrobial lipodepsipeptide tolaasin

The 18-amino acid cytolytic lipodepsipeptide tolaasin, produced in culture by virulent strains of Pseudomonas tolaasii, is the causal agent of the brown blotch disease of the cultivated mushroom. Tolaasin has a sequence of D-amino acids in its N-terminal region, then alternates L- and D-amino acids, and bears a C-terminal lactone macrocycle composed of 5-residues. The solution structure of tolaasin in sodium dodecyl sulfate was studied by 2D-NMR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulated annealing calculations. Tolaasin forms an amphipathic left-handed alpha-helix in the regionDPro2-DalloThr14 comprising the sequence of seven D-amino acids and the adjacent L-D-L-D-D-region. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first recognized example of a left-handed alpha-helix including both D- and L-amino acids. The lactone macrocycle adopts a "boat-like" conformation and is shifted from the helical axis as to form a "golf-club" overall conformation. These structural features will be of importance in understanding, and preventing, tolaasin's role in the bacterial colonization of the host plant, and its toxic action on cells. Furthermore, the observed antimicrobial activity together with the potential resistance to enzymatic degradation and the increased antigenicity (both due to the presence of L- and D-amino acids) strongly suggests for tolaasin a potential role as a template model for the design of new therapeutic antibacterial molecules.     

Purification of a pore-forming peptide toxin, tolaasin, produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii 6264

Tolaasin, a pore-forming peptide toxin, is produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii and causes brown blotch disease of the cultivated mushrooms. P. tolaasii 6264 was isolated from the oyster mushroom damaged by the disease in Korean. In order to isolate tolaasin molecules, the supernatant of bacterial culture was harvested at the stationary phase of growth. Tolaasin was prepared by ammonium sulfate precipitation and three steps of chromatograpies, including a gel permeation and two ion exchange chromatographies. Specific hemolytic activity of tolaasin was increased from 1.7 to 162.0 HU mg(-1) protein, a 98-fold increase, and the purification yield was 16.3%. Tolaasin preparation obtained at each purification step was analyzed by HPLC and SDS-PAGE. Two major peptides were detected from all chromatographic preparations. Their molecular masses were analyzed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and they were identified as tolaasin I and tolaasin II. These results demonstrate that the method used in this study is simple, time-saving, and successful for the preparation of tolaasin.     

Genetic characterization of Pseudomonas 'NZI7'--a novel pathogen that results in a brown blotch disease of Agaricus bisporus

AIMS: To characterize a novel pseudomonad isolate capable of causing brown blotch disease of Agaricus bisporus. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using the white-line-in-agar (WLA) assay, fluorescent pseudomonads isolated from a New Zealand mushroom farm were screened for the lipodepsipeptide tolaasin, a characteristic marker of Pseudomonas tolaasii. One isolate, NZI7, produced a positive WLA assay and caused brown lesions of A. bisporus comparable with those produced by Ps. tolaasii. However, genetic analysis suggested that Ps. tolaasii and NZI7 were genetically dissimilar, and that NZI7 is closely related to Pseudomonas syringae. Nucleotide sequence analyses of a gene involved in tolaasin production indicated that similar genes are present in both NZI7 and Ps. tolaasii. CONCLUSION: NZI7 represents a novel Pseudomonas species capable of causing brown blotch disease of A. bisporus. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Phenotypic identification of Ps. tolaasii based on A. bisporus browning and positive WLA may have limited specificity.     

Evidence for genotypic differences between the two siderovars of Pseudomonas tolaasii,cause of brown blotch disease of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus

Sixteen representative isolates of Pseudomonas tolaasii, the causal agent of brown blotch of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus, were previously assigned to two siderovars (sv1 and sv2) on the basis of pyoverdines synthesized. Each isolate was pathogenic and produced a typical white line precipitate when cultured adjacent to Pseudomonas "reactans" strain LMG 5329. These 16 isolates of P. tolaasii, representing sv1 and sv2, were further characterized using genotypic methods to examine the relationships between the isolates. Rep-PCR studies revealed two distinct patterns from these isolates, which were consistent with the siderovar grouping. Ribotyping differentiated P. tolaasii LMG 2342T (sv1) and PS 3a (sv2) into two distinct ribotypes. A pair of primers, targeted to a 2.1-kb fragment of tl1 (encoding a tolaasin peptide synthetase), yielded the same PCR product from P. tolaasii LMG 2342T (sv1) and PS 22.2 (sv1), but not from PS 3a (sv2). Southern blot analysis indicated that homologues of tl1 are present in PS 3a, but the pattern of hybridization differed from PS 22.2 and LMG 2342T. Sequence determination and analysis of the internally transcribed spacer region ITSI for P. tolaasii LMG 2342T, LMG 6641, and PS 3a strains further supported the presence of the two siderovars. It is concluded that considerable genotypic differences exist among Finnish isolates of P. tolaasii causing brown blotch disease on the cultivated mushroom, which is in agreement with the phenotypic diversity highlighted through previous siderotyping studies.     

In silico study of the ion channel formed by tolaasin I produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii

A toxin produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii, tolaasin, causes brown blotch disease in mushrooms. Tolaasin forms pores on the cellular membrane and destroys cell structure. Inhibiting the ability of tolaasin to form ion channels may be an effective method to protect against attack by tolaasin. However, it is first necessary to elucidate the three-dimensional structure of the ion channels formed by tolaasin. In this study, the structure of the tolaasin ion channel was determined in silico based on data obtained from nuclear magnetic resonance experiments.     

PCR assays for specific and sensitive detection of Pseudomonas tolaasii,the cause of brown blotch disease of mushrooms

AIMS: The present study describes PCR assays to detect specifically Pseudomonas tolaasii from various samples. METHODS AND RESULTS: Two sets of PCR primers were developed to amplify genes required for tolaasin production. Only a PCR product of 449 bp or 249 bp was produced in PCR reactions with the Pt-1A/Pt-1D1 or Pt-PM/Pt-QM primer sets, respectively, and DNA and cells of Ps. tolaasii. Nested and immunocapture-nested PCR could detect to 3 cells of Ps. tolaasii and amplify the Ps. tolaasii-specific DNA from a sample containing 10 000 times more other bacterial cells than Ps. tolaasii, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The PCR assays are simple, rapid and reliable methods for detection and identification of Ps. tolaasii. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The protocols can effectively distinguish Ps. tolaasii from other bacteria and detect Ps. tolaasii from various samples for studying ecology of the bacterium and preventing the use of contaminated water or spawn or medium in mushroom cultivation.     

Identification of non-pseudomonad bacteria from fruit bodies of wild agaricales fungi that detoxify tolaasin produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii

Bacterial isolates from wild Agaricales fungi detoxified tolaasin, the inducer of brown blotch disease of cultivated mushrooms produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii. Mycetocola tolaasinivorans and Mycetocola lacteus were associated with fruit bodies of wild Pleurotus ostreatus and wild Lepista nuda, respectively. Tolaasin-detoxifying bacteria belonging to other genera were found in various wild mushrooms. An Acinetobacter sp. was isolated from fruit bodies of Tricholoma matsutake, Bacillus pumilus was isolated from Coprinus disseminatus, and Sphingobacterium multivorum was isolated from Clitocybe clavipes. A Pedobacter sp., which seemed not be identifiable as any known bacterial species, was isolated from a Clitocybe sp. Tolaasin-detoxifying bacteria identified thus far were attached to the surface of mycelia rather than residing within the fungal cells. M. tolaasinivorans, M. lacteus, B. pumilus, the Pedobacter sp., and S. multivorum efficiently detoxified tolaasin and strongly suppressed brown blotch development in cultivated P. ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus in vitro, but the Acinetobacter sp. did so less efficiently. These bacteria may be useful for the elucidation of mechanisms involved in tolaasin-detoxification, and may become biological control agents of mushroom disease.     

A note on ginger blotch, a new bacterial disease of the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus

Ginger blotch, a new bacterial disease of the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus , is described from farms in the UK. The symptoms are distinct from the classical blotch disease caused by Pseudomonas tolaasii. The causative organism has been isolated and identified as a new member of the Pseudomonas fluorescens complex which can be distinguished from Pseudomonas tolaasii by several simple tests.     

Effects of Caenorhabditis elegans (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) on the spread of the bacterium Pseudomonas tolaasii in mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)

The effects of mass-produced saprobic rhabditid nematodes, Caenorhabditis elegans on the spread of the bacterial blotch pathogen, Pseudomonas tolaasii , were studied in mushroom growth chambers. C. elegans significantly reduced the intensity of blotch on sporophores. Repeated isolations of the bacterial flora from the gut of C. elegans recovered from mushroom sporophores during cropping, revealed the presence of Pseudomonas fluorescens biovar reactans . All the isolates of P. fluorescens biovar reactans isolated from nematodes were antagonists of P. tolaasii .
C. elegans produced much larger populations in monoxenic cultures with P. fluorescens biovar reactans than with P. tolaasii . It is suggested that as C. elegans selects P. fluorescens biovar reactans rather than P. tolaasii as a food substrate it probably spreads the antagonist in the mushroom crop and may contribute to the control of bacterial blotch.     

Pseudomonas tolaasii in mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) crops: activity of formulations of 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol (bronopol) against the bacterium and the use of this compound to control blotch disease

The bactericidal activity of 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol (bronopol) against Pseudomonas tolaasii , the causative organism of mushroom bacterial blotch, is enhanced by the addition of Tween 80, EDTA and phenylethanol. Results of tests with this pseudomonad confirm that bronopol is more active in alkaline solutions and enhancement of the bactericidal activity of this compound can be obtained by adding calcium carbonate, or mushroom casing (limestone and peat). Quantitative observations show that sterility can be achieved with bronopol at 100 µg/ml in 24 h following artificial inoculation of casing with Ps. tolaasii in glass flasks. On miniature mushroom beds in controlled environments a single application of bronopol, in tap water during routine watering, controls bacterial blotch disease. Bronopol is a slow-acting bactericide, destroying Ps. tolaasii in mushroom casing and effecting control of bacterial blotch disease.     

Preliminary description of biocidal (syringomycin) activity in fluorescent plant pathogenic Pseudomonas species

Strains representing the fluorescent plant pathogenic Pseudomonas spp., Ps. agarici , Ps. asplenii , Ps. avellanae , Ps. beteli , Ps. caricapapayae , Ps. cichorii , Ps. corrugata , Ps. ficuserectae , Ps. flectens , Ps. fuscovaginae , Ps. marginalis , Ps. meliae , Ps. savastanoi , Ps. syringae , Ps. tolaasii and Ps. viridiflava were tested for biocidal activity using Aspergillus niger as assay organism. Inhibitory behaviour was found in strains of Ps. asplenii , Ps. blatchfordae , Ps. cichorii , Ps. corrugata , Ps. fuscovaginae , Ps. marginalis , Ps. marginalis pv. pastinacea , Ps. syringae pv. syringae , Ps. syringae pv. aptata , Ps. syringae pv. atrofaciens , Ps. syringae pv. lapsa , Ps. tolaasii , and strains of a Pseudomonas sp. pathogenic to Actinidia , in the Ps. savastanoi genomic sp. Antifungal activity could be identified with the production of members of the syringomycin family of toxins by strains in Ps. syringae , Ps. asplenii and Ps. fuscovaginae . These toxin reactions support suggestions made elsewhere of the synonymy of the latter two species. In a preliminary characterization using tests for stability to heat, protease, acid and alkaline treatments, unknown toxins consistent with syringomycin-like toxins the strains from Actinidia speciesColour RGB 0,0,128. The toxins from Ps. cichorii and from Ps. corrugata differed in their reactions from all other agents. Pseudomonas tolaasii produces the antifungal compound tolaasin. The white line reaction with ' Ps. reactans ', a test for tolaasin production by strains of Ps. tolaasii , was confirmed as specific for this compound. Some of these low molecular weight toxins may be produced by some of these plant pathogenic strains.     

Phenotypic variation of Pseudomonas putida and P. tolaasii affects the chemotactic response to Agaricus bisporus mycelial exudate.

The chemotactic response of wild-type Pseudomonas putida and P. tolaasii, and a phenotypic variant of each species, to Agaricus bisporus mycelial exudate was examined. Both P. putida, the bacterium responsible for initiating basidiome development of A. bisporus, and P. tolaasii, the causal organism of bacterial blotch disease of the mushroom, displayed a positive chemotactic response to Casamino acids and to A. bisporus mycelial exudate. The response was both dose- and time-dependent and marked differences were observed between the response time of the wild-type strains and their phenotypic variants. Phenotypic variants responded rapidly to both attractants and reached a maximum response after 10-20 min, whereas the wild-types took 45-60 min. The differences are partly explained by the more rapid swimming speed of the phenotypic variants. Both variants responded maximally to similar concentrations of Casamino acids and mycelial exudates. Investigations into the nature of the attractants contained in the mycelial exudate indicated that they are predominantly small (Mr less than 2000) thermostable compounds. Sugars present in the exudate did not elicit a chemotactic response in any isolate, but a mixture of 14 amino acids detected in the exudate accounted for between 50 and 75% of the chemotactic response of the fungal exudate.     

Biological characterization of white line-inducing principle (WLIP) produced by Pseudomonas reactans NCPPB1311

The biological activities of the lipodepsipeptides (LDP) white line-inducing principle (WLIP), produced by Pseudomonas reactans NCPPB1311, and tolaasin I, produced by R tolaasii NCPPB2192, were compared. Antimicrobial assays showed that both LDP inhibited the growth of fungi-including the cultivated mushrooms Agaricus bisporus, Lentinus edodes, and Pleurotus spp.--chromista, and gram-positive bacteria. Assays of the two LDP on blocks of Agaricus bisporus showed their capacity to alter the mushrooms' pseudo-tissues though WLIP was less active than that of tolaasin I. Contrary to previous studies, tolaasin I was found to inhibit the growth of gram-negative bacteria belonging to the genera Escherichia, Erwinia, Agrobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Xanthomonas. The only gram-negative bacterium affected by WLIP was Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora. Both WLIP and tolaasin I caused red blood cell lysis through a colloid-osmotic shock mediated by transmembrane pores; however, the haemolytic activity of WLIP was greater than that of tolaasin I. Transmembrane pores, at a concentration corresponding to 1.5 x C50, showed a radius between 1.5 and 1.7 +/- 0.1 nm for WLIP and 2.1 +/- 0.1 nm for tolaasin I. The antifungal activity of WLIP together with the finding that avirulent morphological variants of P. reactans lack WLIP production suggests that WLIP may play an important role in the interaction of the producing bacterium P. reactans and cultivated mushrooms.     

Two types of ion channel formation of tolaasin,a Pseudomonas peptide toxin

Tolaasin is a peptide toxin produced by Pseudomonas tolaasii and causes brown blotch disease of the cultivated mushrooms. Two types of ion channels were identified by the incorporation of tolaasin into lipid bilayer. The slope conductance of type 1 channel measured in the buffer containing 100 mM KCl was 150 pS with a linear current vs. voltage relationship. The type 2 tolaasin channel had two subconductance states of 300 and 500 pS. Both channels were inhibited by Zn(2+). Ion channel formations of tolaasin were concentration-dependent and single channel currents were successfully obtained at 0.6 unit tolaasin, 15.9 nM. The type 1 channel was obtained more frequently than the type 2 channel and the ratio of their appearance was approximately 4:1, respectively.     

The white-line-in-agar test is not specific for the two cultivated mushroom associated pseudomonads, Pseudomonas tolaasii and Pseudomonas "reactans"

A sharply defined white line in vitro forms between the pathogenic form of Pseudomonas tolaasii and another Pseudomonas bacterium, referred to as "reactans". This interaction has been considered as highly specific. However, results presented in this study rise doubt about the strict specificity of this interaction, as some other pseudomonads, associated with the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus, also yielded a white line precipitate when they were streaked towards Pseudomonas tolaasii LMG 2342T. Moreover, some Finnish isolates inducing brown blotch symptoms on mushrooms like P. tolaasii(T), produced a typical white precipitate when streaked towards P. "reactans" LMG5329, even though phenotypical and genotypical features exclude these isolates from the species P. tolaasii. We propose that the white-line-in-agar (WLA) test should no longer be considered as an unequivocal diagnostic trait of P. tolaasii.     

WLIP and tolaasin I, lipodepsipeptides from Pseudomonas reactans and Pseudomonas tolaasii, permeabilise model membranes

The activity of the White Line Inducing Principle (WLIP) and tolaasin I, produced by virulent strains of Pseudomonas reactans and Pseudomonas tolaasii, respectively, was comparatively evaluated on lipid membranes. Both lipodepsipeptides were able to induce the release of calcein from large unilamellar vesicles. Their activity was dependent on the toxin concentration and liposome composition and in particular it increased with the sphingomyelin content of the membrane. Studies of dynamic light scattering suggested a detergent-like activity for WLIP at high concentration (> 27 microM). This effect was not detected for tolaasin I at the concentrations tested (< 28 microM). Differences were also observed in lipodepsipeptides secondary structure. In particular, the conformation of the smaller WLIP changed slightly when it passed from the buffer solution to the lipid environment. On the contrary, we observed a valuable increment in the helical content of tolaasin I which was inserted in the membrane core and oriented parallel to the lipid acyl chains.     

Pseudomonas tolaasii in cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) crops: numbers of the bacterium and symptom development on mushrooms grown in various environments after artificial inoculation

The recovery of Pseudomonas tolaasii applied to peat, limestone and mushroom caps, is very difficult, recovery rates being 0.2–16.0%. Without Agaricus bisporus mycelium, inoculated Ps.tolaasii disappears in the casing layer. As mushroom primordia grew in size on inoculated mushroom beds, the number of detectable cells of the pathogen increased. Symptoms of blotch disease became visible when 5.4 times 10⁶ cfu were detectable, when the mushroom primordia were 6 mm in diameter; 60% of mushrooms showed symptoms before they were 15 mm in diameter. Application of Ps.tolaasii cells as low as 20 cfu/cm² of bed gave epidemics of this severity. Neither size nor age of mushrooms affects their susceptibility. When Ps.tolaasii was placed directly onto caps, 6 times 10⁷ cfu were necessary to produce a blotch lesion (though only 3.5 times 10⁶ cfu could be recovered). Changes in r.h. and temperature did not affect the numbers of cells of Ps.tolaasii on inoculated caps; very frequent watering did so. Increased severity of the disease was seen only on over-watered mushrooms; this occurred by increase in the size of lesions seen at the primordium stage. The number of cells of Ps.tolaasii present on the early primordial stages of mushroom growth controls the extent of blotch disease seen at harvesting, whereas variations in r.h. or temperature during growing do not do so. An illustrated disease symptom measurement key (of general application for assessing severity of blotch disease) is included in the text.     

Bacteria Antagonistic to Pseudomonas tolaasii and their Control of Brown Blotch of the Cultivated Mushroom Agaricus bisporus

S ummary : Pseudomonas tolaasii was isolated from casing peat of healthy and diseased mushroom beds, compost of diseased mushroom beds and from soils round a mushroom farm. It was not isolated from fresh peat or compost from healthy mushroom beds. Three bacteria antagonistic to Ps. tolaasii were isolated from soil and peat. These were a nonfluorescent Pseudomonas sp. (closest to Ps. multivorans ) from soil; and strains of Ps. fluorescens and Enterobacter aerogenes from peat. When the antagonists and the pathogen were added in the ratio of 8 × 10⁷: 10⁶ cells/ml to unsterilized peat and applied to mushroom trays, infection of mushroom sporophores by the pathogen was effectively controlled. In vitro studies failed to show lysis or growth inhibition of Ps. tolaasii by the antagonists.     

Identification of exopolysaccharides produced by fluorescent pseudomonads associated with commercial mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) production.

The acidic exopolysaccharides (EPSs) from 63 strains of mushroom production-associated fluorescent pseudomonads which were mucoid on Pseudomonas agar F medium (PAF) were isolated, partially purified, and characterized. The strains were originally isolated from discolored lesion which developed postharvest on mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) caps or from commercial lots of mushroom casing medium. An acidic galactoglucan, previously named marginalan, was produced by mucoid strains of the saprophyte Pseudomonas putida and the majority of mucoid strains of saprophytic P. fluorescens (biovars III and V) isolated from casing medium. One biovar II strain (J1) of P. fluorescens produced alginate, a copolymer of mannuronic and guluronic acids, and one strain (H13) produced an apparently unique EPS containing neutral and amino sugars. Of 10 strains of the pathogen "P. gingeri," the causal agent of mushroom ginger blotch, 8 gave mucoid growth on PAF. The "P. gingeri" EPS also was unique in containing both neutral sugar and glucuronic acid. Mucoid, weakly virulent strains of "P. reactans" produced either alginate or marginalan. All 10 strains of the pathogen P. tolaasii, the causal agent of brown blotch of mushrooms were nonnmucoid on PAF. Production of EPS by these 10 strains plus the 2 nonmucoid strains of "P. gingeri" also was negative on several additional solid media as well as in two broth media tested. The results support our previous studies indicating that fluorescent pseudomonads are a rich source of novel EPSs.