Inactivation of toxin B from the Indian cobra by cleavage of a specific bond during limited hydrolysis with trypsin

Two neurotoxins, "toxin B", a long neurotoxin from Naja naja, and "cobrotoxin", a short neurotoxin from Naja naja atra, were compared with respect to their limited hydrolysis by trypsin and chymotrypsin and its effect on their neurotoxicity. Limited hydrolysis of toxin B with trypsin cleaves peptide bonds at Arg68-Lys69 and Arg33-Gly34 in the toxin molecule and causes complete loss of the neurotoxicity yielding des-carboxyl terminal toxin B(1-68) nicked at Arg33-Gly34 in the molecule. On the other hand, the des-carboxyl terminal toxin B(1-67) shows 70% of the native toxin B neurotoxicity. These results indicated that the complete loss of the toxicity may be due to hydrolysis of a specific peptide bond, Arg33-Gly34, in the toxin B molecule. Limited trypsin digestion did not affect the toxicity of cobrotoxin and limited chymotrypsin digestion had no effect on either neurotoxin.     

Discovery and development of the complement inhibitor eculizumab for the treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

The complement system provides critical immunoprotective and immunoregulatory functions but uncontrolled complement activation can lead to severe pathology. In the rare hemolytic disease paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), somatic mutations result in a deficiency of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-linked surface proteins, including the terminal complement inhibitor CD59, on hematopoietic stem cells. In a dysfunctional bone marrow background, these mutated progenitor blood cells expand and populate the periphery. Deficiency of CD59 on PNH red blood cells results in chronic complement-mediated intravascular hemolysis, a process central to the morbidity and mortality of PNH. A recently developed, humanized monoclonal antibody directed against complement component C5, eculizumab (Soliris; Alexion Pharmaceuticals Inc., Cheshire, CT, USA), blocks the proinflammatory and cytolytic effects of terminal complement activation. The recent approval of eculizumab as a first-in-class complement inhibitor for the treatment of PNH validates the concept of complement inhibition as an effective therapy and provides rationale for investigation of other indications in which complement plays a role.     

Amino acid sequence of a less-cytotoxic basic polypeptide (LCBP) isolated from the venom of the Indian cobra (Naja naja)

A less-cytotoxic polypeptide, designated as LCBP, was isolated from the venom of Naja naja by gel filtration on Sephadex G-50 followed by CM-cellulose chromatography. The cytotoxicity toward Yoshida sarcoma cells and lethal toxicity toward mice of LCBP were both one order of magnitude lower than that of cytotoxins and that of toxin A, respectively. LCBP is a single polypeptide consisting of 61 amino acid residues with four intramolecular disulfide linkages, and the amino acid sequence is the same as that of cardiotoxin-like basic polypeptide (CLBP) isolated from the venom of Naja naja atra. This is the first time that the same polypeptides were isolated from different cobra venoms.     

Aurin Tricarboxylic Acid Protects against Red Blood Cell Hemolysis in Patients with Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinemia

Objectives

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinemia (PNH) is a rare but serious condition characterized by complement-mediated red blood cell (RBC) hemolysis and episodic thrombotic attack. It results from decay accelerating factor (CD55), and protectin (CD59), becoming attached to RBC and other cell surfaces. Absence of these protective proteins leaves such cells vulnerable to self attack at the C3 convertase and membrane attack complex (MAC) stages of complement activation. We have previously reported that aurin tricarboxylic acid (ATA) is an orally effective agent that selectively blocks complement activation at the C3 convertase stage as well as MAC formation at the C9 insertion stage.

Design and Methods

We used a CH50 assay method and western blot analysis to investigate the vulnerability to complement attack of PNH RBCs compared with normal RBCs. Zymosan was used as the activator of normal serum and PNH serum. ATA was added to the sera to determine the concentration necessary to protect the RBCs from lysis by the zymosan-activated sera.

Results

We found that erythrocytes from PNH patients on long term treatment with eculizumab were twice as vulnerable as normal erythrocytes to lysis induced by complement activated serum. Western blot data showed the presence of both C3 and C5 convertases on the PNH patient erythrocyte membranes. These data indicate persistent vulnerability of PNH erythrocytes to complement attack due to deficiencies in CD55 and CD59. ATA, when added to serum in vitro, protected PNH erythrocytes from complement attack, restoring their resistance to that of normal erythrocytes.

Conclusions

We conclude that ATA, by protecting PNH erythrocytes from their decay accelerating factor (CD55) and protectin (CD59) deficiencies, may be an effective oral treatment in this disorder.     

眼镜蛇毒对大鼠弓状核nNOS表达的影响

目的探讨眼镜蛇毒对大鼠弓状核神经元型一氧化氮合酶(neuronal nitric oxide synthase,nNOS)表达的影响。方法采用免疫组织化学方法分别显示眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组和正常对照组弓状核的nNOS表达。结果与生理盐水组和正常对照组相比,眼镜蛇毒组弓状核nNOS阳性神经元数量明显减少,细胞平均灰度值明显升高(P0.05)。结论眼镜蛇毒能够使大鼠弓状核nNOS表达降低。     

Biochemical background of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is an acquired disorder characterized by paroxysms of intravascular hemolysis. A considerable part of erythrocytes in patient blood is susceptible to autologous complement activation because of the deficiency of CD59, which is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein and inhibits the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC) of complement. The deficiency of CD59 is derived from the inability of GPI-anchor synthesis. Although more than 10 proteins are involved in the GPI-anchor synthesis, the mutation of only one protein, PIG-A, causes the defect in about 200 patients with PNH who have been analyzed. The reason why only PIG-A causes the deficiency of GPI anchor is due to the location of its gene on X chromosome. The clonal stem cell mutated with PIG-A gene in the bone marrow loses the capability of the synthesis of GPI-anchor. The mutation of PIG-A gene alone, however, seems to be insufficient to account for the survival of the PIG-A-deficient cells in the bone marrow. Thus, a fraction of the mutant stem cells probably gain a survival advantage by some additional changes, either additional mutations or changes in immunological circumstances. The release of the surviving cells into blood stream results in a clinical syndrome with PNH.     

眼镜蛇毒对成年大鼠齿状回Nestin表达的影响

目的探讨眼镜蛇毒对成年大鼠齿状回巢蛋白（Nestin）免疫反应阳性表达的影响。方法将24只成年SD大鼠随机分为正常对照组、生理盐水组、眼镜蛇毒组,每组8只。采用SABC免疫组织化学染色法观察齿状回Nestin的表达。结果与正常对照组、生理盐水组相比较,眼镜蛇毒组齿状回Nestin免疫反应阳性表达明显增强（P〈0.01）。结论眼镜蛇毒对成年大鼠齿状回Nestin的表达有上调作用,可能与促进内源性神经干细胞增殖有关。     

眼镜蛇咬伤生化特点分析

目的探讨眼镜蛇咬伤病例的生化特点,提高眼镜蛇咬伤的诊治水平。方法总结111例眼镜蛇咬伤的临床资料,对实验室检查的各生化指标进行统计分析。结果轻型102例,重型7例,危重型2例。血常规中白细胞升高,血小板计数正常,心肌酶学各指标升高,APTT,PT,BUN,Cr正常。RBC、Hb,PLT,FIB,PT、APTT,CK、CKMB、LDH在轻型组和重危型组中比较有显著变化。结论我国南方眼镜蛇咬伤以细胞毒表现最为突出,肾损害轻微、少见,凝血功能障碍不明显。心肌酶学变化显著,可作为诊断和观察病情的敏感指标。缩短就诊时间,及早处理,是改善预后的重要因素。     

On the interaction of cobra venom protein cardiotoxins with erythrocytes

The principally active hemolytic toxin (cardiotoxin) previously purified from the venom of the Thailand cobra, Naja naja siamensis, was shown to produce spontaneous twitching, contractures and membrane depolarization in sartorius muscles from the frog, Rana pipiens. Spontaneous twitching, observed at concentrations greater than 0.1 uM was completely abolished by addition of tetrodotoxin and not affected by d-tubocurarine. Dose and time dependent membrane depolarization of muscle fibers was observed to occur within 10-30 min at 0.2 to 1.0 uM concentrations of the toxin. These observations, taken together with an amino acid analysis characteristic of previously described cobra venom cardiotoxins, characterized this hemolytic toxin as a cardiotoxin. In the absence of EDTA the initial velocities of erythrocyte hemolysis for this toxin showed a sigmoidal concentration dependence which became hyperbolic in the presence of EDTA. The largest increases in hemolysis rates on addition of 1 mM EDTA were observed at low toxin concentrations. In the presence of EDTA extracellular and membrane associated divalent cations are complexed, thus alleviating their competition with toxin for binding to the membrane, a key and apparently rate-determining initial step which leads to hemolysis. In the presence of EDTA hemolysis rates increased linearly at low toxin concentration and reached an extrapolated maximum value at toxin concentrations at which, given its molecular dimensions, there are just sufficient toxin molecules to cover the entire membrane surface area provided by the erythrocytes.     

Cytolytic activity of cytotoxin isolated from Indian cobra venom against experimental tumor cells

Cytolytic activity of cytotoxin isolated from the venom of the Indian cobra (Naja naja) on experimental tumor cells was far stronger than that on normal cells such as peritoneal exudate cells, spleen cells, and erythrocytes of the rat. The effect on Yoshida sarcoma cells was temperature-dependent, being stronger at 37 degrees C than at 0 degrees C. Intramolecular disulfide linkages and free amino groups in the cytotoxin molecule were shown to be essential for the lytic action on the cell membrane. Yoshida sarcoma cells treated with 0.1 mM N-ethylmaleimide reduced the cytolytic action of the toxin. Antitumor activity of the cytotoxin toward a Yoshida sarcoma inoculated intraperitoneally into a rat was not observed.     

中华眼镜蛇心脏毒素(CardiotoxinⅢ)的克隆及其在大肠杆菌和酵母中的表达

心脏毒素cardiotoxinⅢ（CTXⅢ）是中华眼镜蛇毒主要组分之一,根据Genbank中已有的CTXs序列设计特异性引物,从中华眼镜蛇毒中克隆出208bp的CTXⅢ片段,并将该基因片段分别克隆至大肠杆菌His—patch ThioredoxinB载体中,重组CTXⅢ经渗透休克分泌至胞外。将CTXⅢ基因插入酵母pPIC9K分泌型表达载体重组表达,N端带有3个氨基酸（GYT）残基的重组CTXⅢ（rCTXⅢ）分泌量达9．5mg／L,经一步凝胶过滤纯化,其纯度达90％以上,纯化率达65％。经细胞毒性实验检测,纯化的rCTXⅢ 12h的IC50为4．66μg／ml,证实重组蛋白具有良好的生物学活性。     

眼镜蛇毒对大鼠脑桥前庭神经核nNOS表达的影响

目的 观察眼镜蛇毒对大鼠脑干神经元型一氧化氮合酶(nNOS)表达的影响,探讨其对前庭神经核的作用.方法 采用免疫组织化学方法,观察nNOS阳性细胞在眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组、正常对照组大鼠前庭神经核中的表达,并对其作比较.结果 蛇毒组前庭神经核nNOS表达与正常对照组、生理盐水组比较有明显下调(P＜0.01);蛇毒组前庭神经核nNOS阳性细胞灰度值与正常对照组、生理盐水组比较明显增高(P＜0.01),蛇毒对前庭神经核nNOS阳性细胞形态影响不明显.结论 眼镜蛇毒对前庭神经核nNOS表达呈下调作用.     

中华眼镜蛇心脏毒素（cardiotoxinⅢ, CTXⅢ）的克隆及其在大肠杆菌和酵母中的表达

心脏毒素cardiotoxinⅢ (CTXⅢ)是中华眼镜蛇毒主要组分之一,根据Genbank中已有的CTXs序列设计特异性引物,从中华眼镜蛇毒中克隆出208bp的CTXⅢ片段,并将该基因片段分别克隆至大肠杆菌His-patch ThioredoxinB载体中,重组CTXⅢ经渗透休克分泌至胞外。将CTXⅢ基因插入酵母pPIC9K分泌型表达载体重组表达,N端带有三个氨基酸（GYT）残基的重组CTXⅢ（rCTXⅢ）分泌量达9.5mg/L,经一步凝胶过滤纯化,其纯度达90％以上,纯化率达65％。经细胞毒性实验检测,纯化的rCTXⅢ 12h的IC50为4.66?g/ml,证实重组蛋白具有良好的生物学活性。     

Analysis of the effects of activation of the alternative pathway of complement on erythrocytes with an isolated deficiency of decay accelerating factor.

E from individuals with the Inab blood group phenotype have an isolated deficiency of decay accelerating factor (DAF, CD55). DAF is a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchored membrane protein that inhibits activation of both the classical and alternative pathways of complement. Deficiency of DAF from the E of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is thought to contribute to their greater sensitivity to complement-mediated lysis. Unlike PNH E, however, Inab cells are not susceptible to acidified serum lysis, a process that is mediated through activation of the alternative pathway. This observation led us to hypothesize that membrane constituents other than DAF control susceptibility to acidified serum lysis. To investigate this hypothesis, Inab E were incubated in acidified serum, and hemolysis and C3 deposition (as a measure of alternative pathway activation) were quantitated. C3 deposition of Inab cells was approximately 20 times greater than normal, however, hemolysis was not observed. Inab E expressed a normal amount of membrane inhibitor of reactive lysis (MIRL, CD59), a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchored protein that is also deficient in PNH. When MIRL function was blocked with antibody, C3 deposition markedly increased, and 100% of the Inab cells hemolyzed in acidified serum. These studies demonstrate that susceptibility to acidified serum lysis is controlled primarily by MIRL, and that in addition to its regulatory affect on the membrane attack complex, MIRL also modulates the activity of the C3 convertase of the alternative pathway by a mechanism that remains to be determined.     

眼镜蛇毒对成年大鼠下托Nestin表达的影响

目的 探讨眼镜蛇毒对成年大鼠下托巢蛋白（Nestin）阳性神经细胞表达的影响.方法 采用免疫组织化学方法,观察并比较Nestin阳性细胞在眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组、正常对照组大鼠下托的表达.结果 眼镜蛇毒组大鼠下托Nestin阳性神经细胞比生理盐水组、正常对照组表达明显增强（P〈0.01）.结论眼镜蛇毒对大鼠下托Nestin表达有上调作用.     

眼镜蛇毒对大鼠脑桥网状核c-fos表达的影响

目的 探讨眼镜蛇毒对大鼠脑桥网状核c-fos阳性神经元表达的影响.方法 采用免疫组织化学方法,观察并比较c-fos阳性神经元在眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组、正常对照组大鼠脑桥网状核的表达.结果 眼镜蛇毒组大鼠脑桥网状核c-fos阳性神经元比生理盐水组、正常对照组表达明显增强(P<0.05).结论眼镜蛇毒对大鼠脑桥网状核c-f...     

Generation and characterization of Clostridium septicum alpha toxin mutants and their use in diagnosing paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors various proteins to the membrane of eukaryotic cells. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a hematopoietic stem cell disorder that is primarily due to the lack of GPI-anchored proteins on the surface of blood cells. To detect the GPI-deficient cells in PNH patients, we modified alpha toxin, a pore-forming toxin of the Gram-positive bacterium Clostridium septicum. We first showed that aerolysin, a homologous toxin from Aeromonas hydrophila, bound to both of Chinese hamster ovary cells deficient of N-glycan maturation as well as GPI biosynthesis at a significant level. However, alpha toxin bound to the mutant cells of N-glycosylation, but not to GPI-deficient cells. It suggested that alpha toxin could be used as a specific probe to differentiate only GPI-deficient cells. As a diagnostic probe, alpha toxin must be the least cytotoxic while maintaining its affinity for GPI. Thus, we constructed several mutants. Of these, the mutants carrying the Y155G or S189C/S238C substitutions bound to GPI as well as the wild-type toxin. These mutants also efficiently underwent proteolytic activation and aggregated into oligomers on the cell surface, which are events that precede the formation of a pore in the host cell membrane, leading to cell death. Nevertheless, these mutants almost completely failed to kill host cells. It was revealed that the substitutions affect the events that follow oligomerization. The S189C/S238C mutant toxin differentiated GPI-deficient granulocyte and PMN, but not red blood cells, of a PNH patient from GPI-positive cells at least as sensitively as the commercial monoclonal antibodies that recognize the CD59 or CD55 GPI proteins on blood cells. Thus, this modified bacterial toxin can be employed instead of costly monoclonal antibodies to diagnose PNH patients.     

眼镜蛇毒对大鼠丘脑网状核c-fos表达的影响

目的探讨眼镜蛇毒对大鼠丘脑网状核c-fos阳性神经元表达的影响。方法采用免疫组织化学方法观察并比较c-fos阳性神经元在眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组、正常对照组大鼠丘脑网状核的表达。结果眼镜蛇毒组大鼠丘脑网状核c-fos阳性神经元比生理盐水组、正常对照组表达明显增强(P0.01)。结论眼镜蛇毒对大鼠丘脑网状核c-fos表达有上调作用。     

眼镜蛇毒对大鼠延髓c-fos表达的影响

目的 探讨眼镜蛇毒对大鼠延髓c-fos表达的影响.方法 采用免疫组织化学方法,观察并比较c-fos阳性细胞在眼镜蛇毒组、生理盐水组、正常对照组大鼠延髓中的表达.结果 眼镜蛇毒组大鼠延髓外侧网状核c-fos阳性细胞明显多于生理盐水组和正常对照组(P＜0.01).结论 眼镜蛇毒对大鼠延髓c-fos表达有上调作用.     

中华眼镜蛇蛇毒因子(CVF)对补体系统的作用及与人补作C_3和其他蛇毒抗原性关系

中华眼镜蛇蛇毒经DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B。HPLC等多次柱层析分离出有抗补体及溶血活性的眼镜蛇蛇毒因子(Cobra venom factor,CVF),纯化后的CVF在聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳图谱上呈单一区带,分子量为225000—230000,等电点为6.20。用二硫苏糖醇还原经SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳得三类亚基,其分子量总和为237,000。 体外抗补体及溶血试验表明,CVF的作用是通过补体旁路途经使总补体活力下降。双向免疫电泳鉴定,发现CVF与人血清作用后,其中补体成分C_3分子的抗原性发生改变,则表明CVF的作用是通过激活补体成分C_3而发挥的。给豚鼠腹腔注射CVF(0.15ug/g体重)后,其血清总补体水平下降到正常值的3％以下,7天后回升,13天后恢复到正常水平。 单相免疫电泳表明,CVF与人补体C_3抗血清间无任何交叉免疫反应,但人血清与CVF抗血清间有微弱的免疫沉淀反应。另外,CVF的氨基酸组成与人补体C_3也较为相似。鉴定还表明眼镜蛇科中四种蛇毒与CVF抗血清有强烈的免疫沉淀反应,蝰蛇毒及海蛇毒也有免疫沉淀反应,但只有眼镜蛇毒具有抗补体活性。