Modification of yeast ribosomal proteins. Phosphorylation.

Two-dimensional polyacrylamide-gel electrophoretic analysis of yeast ribosomal proteins labelled in vivo with 32PO43- revealed that the proteins S2 and S10 of the 40S ribosomal subunit, and the proteins L9, L30, L44 and L45 of the 60S ribosomal subunit, are phosphorylated in vivo. Most of the phosphate groups appeared to be linked to serine residues. Teh number of phosphate groups per molecule of phosphorylated protein species ranged from 0.01 to 0.79. Since most of the phosphorylated ribosomal proteins appear to associate with the pre-ribosomal particles at a very late stage of ribosome assembly, phosphorylation is more likely to play a role in the functioning of the ribosome than in its assembly.     

Yeast Ribosomal Protein L40 Assembles Late into Precursor 60 S Ribosomes and Is Required for Their Cytoplasmic Maturation

Most ribosomal proteins play important roles in ribosome biogenesis and function. Here, we have examined the contribution of the essential ribosomal protein L40 in these processes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Deletion of either the RPL40A or RPL40B gene and in vivo depletion of L40 impair 60 S ribosomal subunit biogenesis. Polysome profile analyses reveal the accumulation of half-mers and a moderate reduction in free 60 S ribosomal subunits. Pulse-chase, Northern blotting, and primer extension analyses in the L40-depleted strain clearly indicate that L40 is not strictly required for the precursor rRNA (pre-rRNA) processing reactions but contributes to optimal 27 SB pre-rRNA maturation. Moreover, depletion of L40 hinders the nucleo-cytoplasmic export of pre-60 S ribosomal particles. Importantly, all these defects most likely appear as the direct consequence of impaired Nmd3 and Rlp24 release from cytoplasmic pre-60 S ribosomal subunits and their inefficient recycling back into the nucle(ol)us. In agreement, we show that hemagglutinin epitope-tagged L40A assembles in the cytoplasm into almost mature pre-60 S ribosomal particles. Finally, we have identified that the hemagglutinin epitope-tagged L40A confers resistance to sordarin, a translation inhibitor that impairs the function of eukaryotic elongation factor 2, whereas the rpl40a and rpl40b null mutants are hypersensitive to this antibiotic. We conclude that L40 is assembled at a very late stage into pre-60 S ribosomal subunits and that its incorporation into 60 S ribosomal subunits is a prerequisite for subunit joining and may ensure proper functioning of the translocation process.     

On the role of cyclic AMP-independent protein kinases in the modification of yeast ribosomal proteins in vivo

Two proteins of yeast 40S ribosome subunit and four proteins of the 60S ribosome subunit were labelled in vivo with [32P]orthophosphate. Five of these proteins were phosphorylated by protein kinase 3, an enzyme which is cyclic AMP-independent and uses ATP and GTP as phosphoryl donors. Two proteins, belonging to the 60S ribosome subunit were phosphorylated by another, highly specific, cyclic AMP-independent protein kinase 1 B. Both in vivo and in vitro the most extensively phosphorylated protein species were acidic proteins, L44, L45 (according to the nomenclature of Kruiswijk & Planta, Molec. Biol. Rep., 1, 409-415, 1974) possibly corresponding to bacterial L7 and L12 proteins. The 40S ribosomal protein, S9, analogous to mammalian S6 protein, was phosphorylated in vivo but was not phosphorylated in vitro by either of the cyclic AMP-independent protein kinases. The obtained results clearly indicate that cyclic AMP-independent yeast protein kinases might be involved in the modification in vivo of some ribosomal proteins, in particular of the strongly acidic proteins of 60S ribosome subunit.     

Quantitative analysis of the protein composition of yeast ribosomes

The molecular weights of the individual yeast ribosomal proteins were determined. The ribosomal proteins from the 40-S subunit have molecular weights ranging from 11 800 to 31 000 (average molecular weight = 21 300). The molecular weights of the 60-S subunit proteins range from 10 000 to 48 400 (average molecular weight = 21 800). Stoichiometric measurements, performed by densitometric scanning on ribosomal proteins extracted from high-salt dissociated subunits revealed that isolated ribosomal subunits contain, besides some protein species occurring in submolar amounts, a number of protein species which are present in multiple copies: S13, S27, L22, L31, L33, L34 and L39. The mass fractions of the ribosomal proteins which were found to be present on isolated ribosomes in non-unimolar amounts, were re-examined by using an isotope dilution technique. Applying this method to proteins extracted from mildely isolated 80-S ribosomes, we found that some protein species such as S32, S34 and L43 still are present in submolar amounts. On the other hand, however, we conclude that some other ribosomal proteins, in particular the strongly acidic proteins L44 and L45 get partially lost during ribosome dissociation. Proteins L44/L45 appears to be present on 80-S ribosomes in three copies.     

Subcellular distribution of ribosomal proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum

The distribution of ribosomal proteins in monosomes, polysomes, the postribosomal cytosol, and the nucleus was determined during steady-state growth in vegetative amoebae. A partitioning of previously reported cell-specific ribosomal proteins between monosomes and polysomes was observed. L18, one of the two unique proteins in amoeba ribosomes, was distributed equally among monosomes and polysomes. However S5, the other unique protein, was abundant in monosomes but barely visible in polysomes. Of the developmentally regulated proteins, D and S6 were detectable only in polysomes and S14 was more abundant in monosomes. The cytosol revealed no ribosomal proteins. On staining of the nuclear proteins with Coomassie blue, about 18, 7 from 40S subunit and 11 from 60S subunit, were identified as ribosomal proteins. By in vivo labeling of the proteins with [35S]methionine, 24 of the 34 small subunit proteins and 33 of the 42 large subunit proteins were localized in the nucleus. For the majority of the ribosomal proteins, the apparent relative stoichiometry was similar in nuclear preribosomal particles and in cytoplasmic ribosomes. However, in preribosomal particles the relative amount of four proteins (S11, S30, L7, and L10) was two- to four-fold higher and of eight proteins (S14, S15, S20, S34, L12, L27, L34, and L42) was two-to four-fold lower than that of cytoplasmic ribosomes.     

Saccharomyces cerevisiae ribosomal protein L26 is not essential for ribosome assembly and function

Ribosomal proteins play important roles in ribosome biogenesis and function. Here, we study the evolutionarily conserved L26 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which assembles into pre-60S ribosomal particles in the nucle(ol)us. Yeast L26 is one of the many ribosomal proteins encoded by two functional genes. We have disrupted both genes; surprisingly, the growth of the resulting rpl26 null mutant is apparently identical to that of the isogenic wild-type strain. The absence of L26 minimally alters 60S ribosomal subunit biogenesis. Polysome analysis revealed the appearance of half-mers. Analysis of pre-rRNA processing indicated that L26 is mainly required to optimize 27S pre-rRNA maturation, without which the release of pre-60S particles from the nucle(ol)us is partially impaired. Ribosomes lacking L26 exhibit differential reactivity to dimethylsulfate in domain I of 25S/5.8S rRNAs but apparently are able to support translation in vivo with wild-type accuracy. The bacterial homologue of yeast L26, L24, is a primary rRNA binding protein required for 50S ribosomal subunit assembly in vitro and in vivo. Our results underscore potential differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosome assembly. We discuss the reasons why yeast L26 plays such an apparently nonessential role in the cell.     

Authentic precursors to ribosomal subunits accumulate in Escherichia coli in the absence of functional DnaK chaperone

Escherichia coli dnaK-ts mutants are defective in the late stages of ribosome biogenesis at high temperature. Here, we show that the 21S, 32S and 45S ribosomal particles that accumulate in the dnaK756-ts mutant at 44 degrees C contain unprocessed forms of their 16S and 23S rRNAs (partially processed in the case of 45S particles). Their 5S rRNA stoichiometry and ribosomal protein composition are typical of the genuine ribosomal precursors found in a wild-type (dnaK+) strain. Despite the lack of a functional DnaK, a very slow maturation of these 21S, 32S and 45S particles to structurally and functionally normal 30S and 50S ribosomal subunits still occurs at high temperature. This conversion is accompanied by the processing of p16S and p23S rRNAs to their mature forms. We conclude that: (i) 21S, 32S and 45S particles are not dead-end particles, but true precursors to active ribosomes (21S particles are converted to 30S subunits, and 32S and 45S to 50S subunits); (ii) DnaK is not absolutely necessary for ribosome biogenesis, but accelerates the late steps of this process considerably at high temperature; and (iii) 23S rRNA processing depends on the stage reached in the stepwise assembly of the 50S subunit, not directly on DnaK.     

Precursor Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosome Accumulation In Vivo During the Recovery of Salmonella typhimurium from Thermal Injury

When cells of S. typhimurium were heated at 48 C for 30 min in phosphate buffer (pH 6.0), they became sensitive to Levine Eosin Methylene Blue Agar containing 2% NaCl (EMB-NaCl). The inoculation of injured cells into fresh growth medium supported the return of their normal tolerance to EMB-NaCl within 6 hr. The fractionation of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) from unheated and heat-injured cells by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrated that after injury the 16S RNA species was totally degraded and the 23S RNA was partially degraded. Sucrose gradient analysis demonstrated that after injury the 30S ribosomal subunit was totally destroyed and the sedimentation coefficient of the 50S particle was decreased to 47S. During the recovery of cells from thermal injury, four species of rRNA accumulated which were demonstrated to have the following sedimentation coefficients: 16, 17, 23, and 24S. Under identical recovery conditions, 22, 26, and 28S precursors of the 30S ribosomal subunit and 31 and 48S precursors of the 50S ribosomal subunit accumulated along with both the 30 and 50S mature particles. The addition of chloramphenicol to the recovery medium inhibited both the maturation of 17S RNA and the production of mature 30S ribosomal subunits, but permitted the accumulation of a single 22S precursor particle. Chloramphenicol did not affect either the maturation of 24S RNA or the mechanism of formation of 50S ribosomal subunits during recovery. Very little old ribosomal protein was associated with the new rRNA synthesized during recovery. New ribosomal proteins were synthesized during recovery and they were found associated with the new rRNA in ribosomal particles. The rate-limiting step in the recovery of S. typhimurium from thermal injury was in the maturation of the newly synthesized rRNA.     

Nog2p, a putative GTPase associated with pre-60S subunits and required for late 60S maturation steps.

Eukaryotic ribosome maturation depends on a set of well ordered processing steps. Here we describe the functional characterization of yeast Nog2p (Ynr053cp), a highly conserved nuclear protein. Nog2p contains a putative GTP-binding site, which is essential in vivo. Kinetic and steady-state measurements of the levels of pre-rRNAs in Nog2p-depleted cells showed a defect in 5.8S and 25S maturation and a concomitant increase in the levels of both 27SB(S) and 7S(S) precursors. We found Nog2p physically associated with large pre-60S complexes highly enriched in the 27SB and 7S rRNA precursors. These complexes contained, besides a subset of ribosomal proteins, at least two additional factors, Nog1p, another putative GTP-binding protein, and Rlp24p (Ylr009wp), which belongs to the Rpl24e family of archaeal and eukaryotic ribosomal proteins. In the absence of Nog2p, the pre-60S ribosomal complexes left the nucleolus, but were retained in the nucleoplasm. These results suggest that transient, possibly GTP-dependent association of Nog2p with the pre-ribosomes might trigger late rRNA maturation steps in ribosomal large subunit biogenesis.     

The carboxy-terminal extension of yeast ribosomal protein S14 is necessary for maturation of 43S preribosomes

Eukaryotic ribosomal proteins are required for production of stable ribosome assembly intermediates and mature ribosomes, but more specific roles for these proteins in biogenesis of ribosomes are not known. Here we demonstrate a particular function for yeast ribosomal protein rpS14 in late steps of 40S ribosomal subunit maturation and pre-rRNA processing. Extraordinary amounts of 43S preribosomes containing 20S pre-rRNA accumulate in the cytoplasm of certain rps14 mutants. These mutations not only reveal a more precise function for rpS14 in ribosome biogenesis but also uncover a role in ribosome assembly for the extended tails found in many ribosomal proteins. These studies are one of the first to relate the structure of eukaryotic ribosomes to their assembly pathway-the carboxy-terminal extension of rpS14 is located in the 40S subunit near the 3' end of 18S rRNA, consistent with a role for rpS14 in 3' end processing of 20S pre-rRNA.     

Study of the surface of Escherichia coli ribosomes and ribosomal particles by the tritium bombardment method

A new technique of atomic tritium bombardment has been used to study the surface topography of Escherichia coli ribosomes and ribosomal subunits. The technique provides for the labeling of proteins exposed on the surface of ribosomal particles, the extent of protein labeling being proportional to the degree of exposure. The following proteins were considerably tritiated in the 70S ribosomes: S1, S4, S7, S9 and/or S11, S12 and/or L20, S13, S18, S20, S21, L1, L5, L6, L7/L12, L10, L11, L16, L17, L24, L26 and L27. A conclusion is drawn that these proteins are exposed on the ribosome surface to an essentially greater extent than the others. Dissociation of 70S ribosomes into the ribosomal subunits by decreasing Mg2+ concentration does not lead to the exposure of additional ribosomal proteins. This implies that there are no proteins on the contacting surfaces of the subunits. However, if a mixture of subunits has been subjected to centrifugation in a low Mg2+ concentration at high concentrations of a monovalent cation, proteins S3, S5, S7, S14, S18 and L16 are more exposed on the surface of the isolated 30S and 50S subunits than in the subunit mixture or in the 70S ribosomes. The exposure of additional proteins is explained by distortion of the native quaternary structure of ribosomal subunits as a result of the separation procedure. Reassociation of isolated subunits at high Mg2+ concentration results in shielding of proteins S3, S5, S7 and S18 and can be explained by reconstitution of the intact 30S subunit structure.     

Yeast ribosomal protein L7 and its homologue Rlp7 are simultaneously present at distinct sites on pre-60S ribosomal particles

Ribosome biogenesis requires >300 assembly factors in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Ribosome assembly factors Imp3, Mrt4, Rlp7 and Rlp24 have sequence similarity to ribosomal proteins S9, P0, L7 and L24, suggesting that these pre-ribosomal factors could be placeholders that prevent premature assembly of the corresponding ribosomal proteins to nascent ribosomes. However, we found L7 to be a highly specific component of Rlp7-associated complexes, revealing that the two proteins can bind simultaneously to pre-ribosomal particles. Cross-linking and cDNA analysis experiments showed that Rlp7 binds to the ITS2 region of 27S pre-rRNAs, at two sites, in helix III and in a region adjacent to the pre-rRNA processing sites C₁ and E. However, L7 binds to mature 25S and 5S rRNAs and cross-linked predominantly to helix ES7^Lb within 25S rRNA. Thus, despite their predicted structural similarity, our data show that Rlp7 and L7 clearly bind at different positions on the same pre-60S particles. Our results also suggest that Rlp7 facilitates the formation of the hairpin structure of ITS2 during 60S ribosomal subunit maturation.     

Primary structures of five ribosomal proteins from the archaebacterium Halobacterium marismortui and their structural relationships to eubacterial and eukaryotic ribosomal proteins

The complete amino acid sequences of ribosomal proteins L9, L20, L21/22, L24 and L32 from the archaebacterium Halobacterium marismortui were determined. The comparison of the sequences of these proteins with those from other organisms revealed that proteins L21/22 and L24 are homologous to ribosomal protein Yrp29 from yeast and L19 from rat, respectively, and that H. marismortui L20 is homologous to L30 from eubacteria. H. marismortui ribosomal protein L9 showed sequence homology to both L29 from yeast and L15 from eubacteria. No homologous protein was found for H. marismortui L32. These results are discussed with respect to the phylogenetic relationship between eubacteria, archaebacteria and eukaryotes.     

The ribosomal protein Rps15p is required for nuclear exit of the 40S subunit precursors in yeast

We have conducted a genetic screen in order to identify ribosomal proteins of Saccharomyces cerevisiae involved in nuclear export of the small subunit precursors. This has led us to distinguish Rps15p as a protein dispensable for maturation of the pre-40S particles, but whose assembly into the pre-ribosomes is a prerequisite to their nuclear exit. Upon depletion of Rps15p, 20S pre-rRNA is released from the nucleolus and retained in the nucleus, without alteration of the pre-rRNA early cleavages. In contrast, Rps18p, which contacts Rps15p in the small subunit, is required upstream for pre-rRNA processing at site A2. Most pre-40S specific factors are correctly associated with the intermediate particles accumulating in the nucleus upon Rps15p depletion, except the late-binding proteins Tsr1p and Rio2p. Here we show that these two proteins are dispensable for nuclear exit; instead, they participate in 20S pre-rRNA processing in the cytoplasm. We conclude that, during the final maturation steps in the nucleus, incorporation of the ribosomal protein Rps15p is specifically required to render the pre-40S particles competent for translocation to the cytoplasm.     

Analysis of the protein composition of yeast ribosomal subunits by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis

The number of proteins in yeast ribosomal subunits was determined by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The 40S subunit obtained after dissociation of ribosomes at high ionic strength contains 30 different protein species (including six acidic proteins). The 60S subunit, obtained in the same way contains 39 different species (including 1 acidic protein). While the total number of protein species found in yeast ribosomes, thus, is in close agreement with those reported for other eukaryotic organisms, the distribution between acidic and basic proteins is quite different. When the ribosomes were dissociated at low ionic strength, four extra protein spots appeared in the electropherograms of both 40S and 60S subunits. We consider these proteins to be nonribosomal.     

Surface topography of the Bacillus stearothermophilus ribosome.

Summary The surface topography of the intact 70S ribosome and free 30S and 50S subunits from Bacillus stearothermophilus strain 2184 was investigated by lactoperoxidase-catalyzed iodination. Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was employed to separate ribosomal proteins for analysis of their reactivity. Free 50S subunits incorporated about 18% more ¹²⁵I than did 50S subunits derived from 70S ribosomes, whereas free 30S subunits and 30S subunits derived from 70S ribosomes incorporated similar amounts of ¹²⁵I. Iodinated 70S ribosomes and subunits retained 62–78% of the protein synthesis activity of untreated particles and sedimentation profiles showed no gross conformational changes due to iodination. The proteins most reactive to enzymatic iodination were S4, S7, S10 and Sa of the small subunit and L2, L4, L5/9, L6 and L36 of the large subunit. Proteins S2, S3, S7, S13, Sa, L5/9, L10, L11 and L24/25 were labeled substantially more in the free subunits than in the 70S ribosome. Other proteins, including S5, S9, S12, S15/16, S18 and L36 were more extensively iodinated in the 70S ribosome than in the free subunits. The locations of tyrosine residues in some homologus ribosomal proteins from B. stearothermophilus and E. coli are compared.     

Influence of the state of ribosome association on the phosphorylation of ribosomal proteins in isolated ribosome--protein kinase systems from rat cerebral cortex.

Ribosomal protein phosphorylation was investigated in isolated ribosomal subunits and polyribosomes from rat cerebral cortex in the presence of [gamma-32P]ATP and purified catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase from the same tissue. Ribosomal proteins that were most readily phosphorylated in isolated cerebral ribosomal subunits included proteins S2, S3a, S6 and S10 of the 40 S subunit and proteins L6, L13, L14, L19 and L29 of the 60 S subunit. These proteins were also phosphorylated in cellular preparations of rat cerebral cortex in situ or in vitro [Roberts & Ashby (1978) J. Biol. Chem. 253, 288-296; Roberts & Morelos (1979) Biochem. J. 184, 233-244]. However, several additional ribosomal proteins were phosphorylated when isolated 40 S or 60 S subunits were separately incubated in the reconstituted system. Analogous results were obtained with an equimolar mixture of cerebral 40 S and 60 S subunits under comparable conditions. In contrast, extensive exposure of purified cerebral polyribosomes to the catalytic subunit resulted in phosphorylation of only those ribosomal proteins of the 40 S subunit that were most highly labelled after the administration of [32P]Pi in vivo: proteins S2, S6 and S10. Ribosomal proteins of 60 S subunits that were readily phosphorylated in isolated cerebral polyribosomes included proteins L6, L13 and L29. These results indicate that polyribosome formation markedly decreases the number of ribosomal protein sites available for phosphorylation by the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Moreover, the findings suggest that, of the ribosomal protein phosphorylations observed in rat cerebral cortex in vivo, proteins S2, S6, S10, L6, L13 and L29 can be phosphorylated in polyribosomes, whereas proteins S3a, S5, L14 and L19 may become phosphorylated only in free ribosomal subunits.     

Properties of ribosomes and RNA synthesized by Escherichia coli grown in the presence of ethionine. V. Methylation dependence on the assembly of E. coli 50 S ribosomal subunits.

An ethionine-containing submethylated particle related to the 50 S ribosomal subunit has been isolated from Escherichia coli grown in the presence of ethionine. This particle (E-50S) lacks L16, contains reduced amounts of L6, L27, L28 and L30 and possesses a more labile and flexible structure than the normal 50 S subunit. The E-50S particle has defective association properties and is incapable of peptide bond formation. It can be converted to an active 50 S ribosomal subunit when ethionine-treated bacteria are incubated under conditions which permit methylation of submethylated cellular components (presence of methionine) in the absence of de novo protein and RNA synthesis (presence of rifampicin).Total reconstitution of 50 S ribosomal subunits in vitro using normal 23 S and 5 S ribosomal RNA and proteins prepared from E-50S particles yields active subunits only if L16 is also added. The hypothesis that E-50S particles accumulate in ethionine-treated bacteria because the absence of methylation of one or more of their components blocks a late stage (L16 integration) in the normal 50 S assembly process is discussed.     

Phosphorylation in vitro and in vivo of ribosomal proteins from Saccharomyces cerevisia.

Crude ribosomes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae cultures were phosphorylated in vitro when incubated in the presence of [gamma-32P]ATP. Analysis of the ribosomal proteins with two-dimensional electrophoresis revealed that of the 29 proteins identified in the small subunit, only protein S6 was phosphorylated. Of the 37 proteins identified in the large subunit, one was highly phosphorylated (L3) and two only slightly phosphorylated (L11 and L14). The protein kinase activity associated with the ribosomes was extracted with 1 M KCl and was not dependent on adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate; it preferentially phosphorylated casein and phosvitin, but was less active on histones. Structural ribosomal proteins were also phosphorylated in vivo when the yeast cultures were incubated with [32P]orthophosphate; the radioactivity resistant to hydrolysis by hot perchloric acid was incorporated into the proteins of the two subunits. Radioactive phosphoserine was found by subjecting hydrolysates of ribosomal proteins to high-voltage electrophoresis. After two-dimensional electrophoresis, one poorly phosphorylated protein (S10) was identified in the small subunit. In the large subunit, one protein (L3) was highly labelled, and two proteins (L11 and L24) only slightly labelled.     

Influence of magnesium and polyamines on the reactivity of individual ribosomal subunit proteins to lactoperoxidase-catalyzed iodination.

30S and 50S subunits, in the presence of either 20 mM Mg2+ or 6 mM Mg2+ and 5mM spermidine plus 25 mM putrescine, were observed to completely associate to form 70S monosomes as monitored by sucrose gradient sedimentation. Subunits maintained under the above ionic conditions were compared with 30S and 50S particles at low (6 mM) magnesium concentration with respect to the reactivity of individual ribosomal proteins to lactoperoxidase-catalyzed iodination. Altered reactivity to enzymatic iodination of ribosomal proteins S4, S9, S10, S14, S17, S19, and S20 in the small subunit of ribosomal proteins, L2, L9, L11, L27, and L30 in the large subunit following incubation with high magnesium or magnesium and polyamines suggests that a conformation change in both subunits accompanies the formation of 70S monosomes. The results further demonstrate that the effect of Mg2+ on subunit conformation is mimicked when polyamines are substituted for magnesium necessary for subunit association.