Annual foods of the Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the east of England

There have been few studies on the foods of Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) and Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) in British forests. Notable exceptions are the work of Prior (1968), Henry (1978) and Hosey (1981) on Roe deer. British work on the food of Red deer seems to have been confined to studies of animals on upland swards (Charles, McCowan & East, 1977; Staines ∓ Crisp, 1978). However, a more abundant supply of data on the food and feeding of both Red and Roe deer comes from the Continent (Dragoev, 1964; Gabuzov, 1960; Kolev, 1966; Novikov & Timofeeva, 1964; Siuda, Zorowski & Suida, 1969; Dzieciolowski, 1967 a , b , 1969). Even so the data available were obtained from studies made on individual species of deer. This paper reports the results of an investigation into seasonal changes in the diet of Red and Roe deer coexisting in a conifer forest in the east of England.     

Survival and causes of death of European Roe Deer before and after Eurasian Lynx reintroduction in the Bavarian Forest National Park

The return of the Eurasian Lynx to Central Europe has led to a number of conflicts. A primary subject of discussion involves its predation on other wildlife species. Here, we investigated the influence of lynx on its main prey, Roe Deer, in the Bavarian Forest National Park in south-eastern Germany. We compared the survival rates of deer before and after reintroduction of lynx. The analysis is based on data from 1984 to 1988 and 2005 to 2008 of 88 and 99 radio-collared Roe Deer, respectively. During the first period, 35 deer deaths were documented; during the second period, 41 deaths were documented. The causes of death in the second period were lynx 44%, road kill 15%, hunting 12%, and other causes 29%. We used the Cox model to determine the influence of covariables on the hazard rate, which made it possible to consider interactions between the variables. The resulting model includes the four main effects sex, age, presence of lynx, and severity of first winter, and the three interactions—presence of lynx:sex, age:severity of first winter, and sex:severity of first winter, which had a statistically significant influence on Roe Deer survival.     

Age determination in roe deer — a new approach to tooth wear evaluated on known age in dividuals

A novel, simple, and objective method is presented for ageing roe deerCapreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758) evaluated on 471 lower jaws from roe deer of known age (351 with permanent premolars). It is based on tooth eruption patterns and presence/absence of wear characters in jaws from roe deer integrated in a scoring system. Permanent cheek teeth emerge in May–July in the year af ter birth, which enables precise age determination of individuals with deciduous premolars. For individuals with permanent cheek teeth, the method provides the correct age for all individ uals younger than 13 months and > 80% of all individuals between 13 and 24 months old. For older in dividuals the accuracy decreases, but decent accuracy is achieved to the age of 48 months. Males have higher wear rates than females corroborating recent documentation of sex-specific life history tactics in ungulates. The data originate from two separated Danish roe deer populations exposed to contrasting habitats, but no difference in wear rate is found between populations. Thus, previous concern about the validity of age determination methods based on tooth wear may have been overstated. The findings demonstrate that objective measures of tooth wear can provide the basis for age determination in ungulate species that are otherwise difficult to age.     

Bigger teeth for longer life? Longevity and molar height in two roe deer populations

The role of tooth wear as a proximate cause of senescence in ruminants has recently been highlighted. There are two competing hypotheses to explain variation in tooth height and wear; the diet-quality hypothesis predicting increased wear in low-quality habitats, and the life-history hypothesis predicting molar height to be related to expected longevity. We compared tooth height and wear from roe deer of known age from two contrasting populations of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in France: Trois Fontaines (TF) with good habitat and shorter animal life expectancy and Chizé (CH) with poor habitat and longer animal life expectancy. There was no population difference in tooth wear, leading to rejection of the diet-quality hypothesis. However, despite their smaller body size, initial molar height for animals from CH was larger than for animals from TF. This provides the first evidence that variation in longevity between populations can lead to differences in molar height within a species.     

The dentition of red deer (Cervus elaphus): a scoring scheme to assess age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth

Skulls of red deer ( Cervus elaphus of known age were examined. A scoring procedure devised for fallow deer ( Dama dama ) was used to relate tooth wear to a particular age (Brown & Chapman, 1990). The precise sequential nature of tooth wear as it appeared on the slopes and tips of cusps, on the marginal ridges and links between cusps was recorded. From these data a base has been provided from which estimates of age may be made of animals of unknown age. The variability for the scores are given for 95% prediction intervals from the regression of age on total molar wear score.     

Population responses of roe deer to the recolonization of the French Vercors by wolves

In a context of changing carnivore populations worldwide, it is crucial to understand the consequences of these changes for prey populations. The recolonization by wolves of the French Vercors mountain range and the long-term monitoring (2001–2017) of roe deer in this area provided a unique opportunity to assess the effects of wolves on this prey. Roe deer was the main prey of wolves in the west Vercors mountain range during this recolonization. We compared roe deer abundance and fawn body mass in two contrasted areas of a wolf pack territory: a central area (core of the territory characterized by an intense use by wolves) and a peripheral area (used more occasionally). Roe deer population growth rates were lower in the central area between 2001 and 2006, resulting in a decline in roe deer abundance. Roe deer abundance substantially dropped in the two study areas after an extremely severe winter but the abundance of roe deer in the central area facing with wolves was slower to recover and remained at lower abundance levels for 6 years. Fawn body mass was consistently lower in the central area, varied similarly as roe deer abundance, and was not influenced by weather conditions or red deer population abundance. Altogether, the effects of wolves on roe deer in the central area occurred during a 10-year period following the establishment of wolves, through the interplay between wolf predation (before wolves started preying on red deer), harsh winter conditions and possibly naivety of prey to this recolonizing predator.     

Mortality in deer

Mortality in deer can occur from various causes predominantly associated directly or indirectly with man. Deliberate culling by shooting is of course the principal cause but a considerable number of deer are killed by illegal activities of poachers in various parts of the country. At present high prices for venison and low fines imposed by the Courts encourage their activities. Mechanical injuries from car accidents and fencing wire are common factors and the weather, particularly in the North of Scotland, can take a heavy toll especially of the old and the very young. Disease per se is probably of little significance in well-managed populations. An excellent host-parasite relationship seems to exist in many instances, but liver fluke and lungworm are important causes of death particularly in Roe in certain areas. Deer are, on the whole, remarkably free from clinical diseases compared with domesticated stock but with the advent of ‘deer farming’, certain infections such as Tuberculosis and Brucellosis are worthy of further study. Deaths from poisoning rarely occur although certain plants such as laurel can be toxic to Fallow deer; yew appears to be eaten with impunity. Percentage mortality in the different species is virtually impossible to ascertain at present, as the numbers of deer are not known in most areas. Moreover, dead deer are rarely found; so far the only accurate figures available have been obtained from deer parks. It would probably be true to say that the vast majority of free-living deer in Britain rarely live out their allotted span of life as judged by the age to which deer can survive in certain parks in the absence of the usual causes of mortality in the wild.     

Marking Activities of the Siberian Roe Deer (Capreolus pygargus,Cervidae) in Central Yakutia

Biology Bulletin - The marking behavior of male Siberian Roe deer in central Yakutia, Siberia is considered in the context of a biological signal field. The optical elements of the Roe deer signal...     

Mineralization and wear of mandibular first molars in red deer (Cervus elaphus) of known age

The degree of dental wear was measured in 41 mandibular first molars from red deer of known age (range 2–18 years). The calculated wear indices were positively correlated with age ( r = 0.780, P < 0.001). In the same sample, significant ( P < 0.001) differences in hardness (determined by microhardness testing) were observed between enamel and coronal dentine as well as between outer and inner enamel and dentine, respectively. In animals belonging to the same age group (three-year-olds, n = 11), a negative correlation ( r = -0.830, P = 0.0016) was found between wear index and maximum mean enamel hardness. In a sample of five specimens from this age group, a negative correlation ( r = -0.918, P = 0.028) between maximum calcium concentration of enamel (measured by electron microprobing) and wear index was also recorded. We concluded that the intensity of enamel mineralization had a decisive effect on the degree of dental wear. Measuring of enamel hardness and subsequent modification of wear scores or indices is therefore recommended for future studies on the relationship between age and the degree of dental attrition in deer.     

The annual diet of the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the New Forest, Hampshire, as determined by rumen content analysis

By analysing rumen content samples from 105 dead specimens, the annual diet of the Roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) in the New Forest, Hampshire, was determined over the period from November 1970 to March 1973. Bramble and rose formed the bulk of the diet throughout the year, comprising the largest food fraction in all months except January and April. In January to March, foliage from felled conifers, Calluna , and ivy were major foods, plus lesser amounts of grasses, herbs and fungi. From May until early winter, herbs and grasses were important. New, tender, spring and summer growth from broadleaved deciduous trees, bilberry and holly was eaten in appreciable quantities. Acorns were a characteristic autumnal food. Abundant potential foods which Roe deer seldom selected included rushes, sedges, mosses, bark and dead hardwood leaves. Widespread species that Roe rarely consumed were Corsican pine, Erica tetralix, E. cinerea , gorses, bog myrtle and the grasses Agrostis setacea, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Deschampsia caespitosa and Molinia caerulea .     

Intolerance amongst deer species at feeding: roe deer are uneasy banqueters

The function of inter-specific interactions in large herbivore assemblies is under debate. We have studied inter-specific interactions between roe and fallow deer on pastures, to assess whether competition between these Cervidae occurs through behavioural interference. Roe were displaced by fallow deer (i.e. the former moved away from the latter at a distance of >50 m) in 83% of cases (N = 127). Ninety-four percentage (N = 83) of displacement events occurred while roe deer were feeding; in 50% of these cases (N = 78), roe stopped grazing and left the feeding ground. Even when fallow deer did not show any sign of direct aggression to roe, these moved away from fallow in 72% of cases (N = 127). Vigilance rate was significantly greater in roe than in fallow deer, irrespectively of the presence of the other species. When roe and fallow deer grazed within 50 m from each other, vigilance rate increased significantly in roe, but not in fallow deer. Roe deer, in a group, were significantly more tolerant of the presence of fallow deer (even in group), than when solitary. Fallow deer seemed to be able to exclude roe deer from feeding sites through behavioural intolerance.     

The relationship between tooth wear, habitat quality and late-life reproduction in a wild red deer population

1. Molar tooth wear is considered an important proximate mechanism driving patterns of senescence in ungulates but few studies have investigated the causes of variation in molar wear or their consequences for reproductive success. 2. In this study, we assessed molar tooth wear at death among red deer Cervus elaphus of known age on the Isle of Rum, Scotland. 3. First molar height showed a decelerating decline with age. In females, the rates of molar wear with age varied with location of home range and individuals experiencing low resource competition showed reduced molar wear. We suggest that this spatial variation in molar wear is related to differences in the availability of high-quality grazing habitat and levels of resource competition. 4. There was no evidence that females with more heavily worn molars had reduced reproductive performance late in life or that first molar height was associated with reproductive senescence.     

4种鹿科动物被毛显微形态学特征研究

应用扫描电镜、偏振光显微镜及光学显微镜对黄麂、黑麂、白唇鹿和狍的背部、腹部、颈部和臀部的毛的髓质指数和鳞片花纹类型进行研究.结果表明,黄麂背、臀、腹、颈等4个部位的毛髓质指数区间为60.5%～84.5%,黑麂4个部位的毛髓质指数区间为62.8%～80.2%,白唇鹿4个部位的毛髓质指数区间为60.1%～90.2%,狍4个部位的毛髓质指数区间为85.8%～93.2%.4种动物的毛鳞片花纹类型较单一,主要包括杂波型、扁平型、镶嵌型和冠状型等,其排列顺序不尽相同.用毛的显微形态学特征对4种动物进行识别具有可行性,但有一定的难度.     

Survival rates and causes of mortality of roe deer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis> in a rural landscape,eastern Poland

Game species in the cultural landscapes of Europe are exposed to several sources of anthropogenic pressure. Whilst hunting is part of coordinated wildlife management, poaching is difficult to quantify, and hence, relatively little is known about its impact on survival patterns of game species. We estimated survival and cause-specific mortality rates of 31 roe deer Capreolus capreolus in the surroundings of the Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest, eastern Poland, from 2010 to 2013. The study area consisted of large, extensively used agricultural fields and a mosaic of pine plantations, which were interspersed with natural forest stands and small agricultural fields and meadows. Roe deer were regularly hunted and the forested part of the study area was traversed by large carnivores. Annual survival rate of all deer was 0.69 and did not differ between seasons. Annual survival rates of females and males in each age class (young and adult) were similar. Poaching was a major source of mortality (6 out of 13 roe deer deaths), and poachers did not prefer any sex or age. Adult survival (0.77) was higher than survival of young individuals (0.53); this trend was stronger when poaching was excluded from the analysis. All cases of poaching were recorded between mid-September and February. Although the two parts of the study area were exposed to a similar degree of anthropogenic pressure, all poached individuals occupied home ranges in the mosaic, where the forest cover in home ranges of roe deer was significantly higher than in the field.     

Effects of cohort,sex, and birth date on body development of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns

We investigated the effects of the year of birth (cohort effect), sex and birth date on the variations observed in birth weight and postnatal growth rate in 209 newborn fawns marked during eight consecutive fawning seasons from a highly productive roe deer population under good nutritional conditions. Roe deer exhibited a fast body development with a birth weight of 1628 g and a postnatal growth rate of 139 g/day constant over the first 20 days of their life. As previously reported for dimorphic and polygynous ungulates, there was a marked cohort effect on the rate of body development. This variability was partly explained by climatic conditions during late gestation. When fewer than 5 days with rainfall over 5 mm occurred in April, fawns were heavier. High temperatures during April and during the winter could also be involved in fast body development of roe deer fawns. Sex of fawn did not affect roe deer growth pattern. This was expected on the basis of low sexual dimorphism in size and low polygyny level characteristic of roe deer. Lastly, the date of birth did not affect the body development of roe deer fawns. High constancy of mean birth dates and high synchrony of births observed in this population could account for this result.     

The dentition of fallow deer (Dama dama): a scoring scheme to assess age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth

The sequence of tooth wear was determined from skulls of fallow deer of known age. A system for scoring molariform tooth wear has been devised so that small but readily recognizable wear changes of the individual cusps may be recorded and used to assess the age of animals of unknown birth dates. The technique can be readily adapted for other ruminant species with the appropriate database.     

张广才岭南部东北虎猎物种群冬季营养容纳量研究

猎物匮乏是影响东北虎（Panthera tigris altaica）种群恢复的关键因素之一。容纳量研究是开展东北虎猎物恢复工作的必要前提。通过Maxent模型、聚类分析和训练随机树分类等方法,结合调查数据,预测了吉林省张广才岭南部黄泥河林业局东北虎主要猎物的适宜栖息地空间分布,解译了植被类型,在此基础上基于不同植被类型动物可采食部分代谢能、不同生境等级食物可利用率、马鹿（Cervus elaphus）和狍（Capreolus capreolus）生境等级重叠情况以及动物冬季能量需求,分析了东北虎猎物的冬季营养容纳量。结果表明：黄泥河林业局狍、野猪（Sus scrofa）和马鹿的适宜栖息地分别占研究区域总面积的52.8%、40.7%和25.4%;从猎物获取能量来看,以山杨（Populus davidiana）、桦树（Betula）、核桃楸（Juglans mandshurica）为主的植被类型是马鹿、狍可获得能量较多的生境,以蒙古栎（Quercus mongolica）、核桃楸为主的植被类型是野猪可获得能量较多的生境。东北虎猎物种群的综合冬季营养容纳量为574只马鹿（0.29只/km²）,7016只狍（3.54只/km²）,4785只野猪（2.38只/km²）。     

Wear Fast,Die Young: More Worn Teeth and Shorter Lives in Iberian Compared to Scottish Red Deer

Teeth in Cervidae are permanent structures that are not replaceable or repairable; consequently their rate of wear, due to the grinding effect of food and dental attrition, affects their duration and can determine an animal''s lifespan. Tooth wear is also a useful indicator of accumulative life energy investment in intake and mastication and their interactions with diet. Little is known regarding how natural and sexual selection operate on dental structures within a species in contrasting environments and how these relate to life history traits to explain differences in population rates of tooth wear and longevity. We hypothesised that populations under harsh environmental conditions should be selected for more hypsodont teeth while sexual selection may maintain similar sex differences within different populations. We investigated the patterns of tooth wear in males and females of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) in Southern Spain and Scottish red deer (C. e. scoticus) across Scotland, that occur in very different environments, using 10343 samples from legal hunting activities. We found higher rates of both incisor and molar wear in the Spanish compared to Scottish populations. However, Scottish red deer had larger incisors at emergence than Iberian red deer, whilst molars emerged at a similar size in both populations and sexes. Iberian and Scottish males had earlier tooth depletion than females, in support of a similar sexual selection process in both populations. However, whilst average lifespan for Iberian males was 4 years shorter than that for Iberian females and Scottish males, Scottish males only showed a reduction of 1 year in average lifespan with respect to Scottish females. More worn molars were associated with larger mandibles in both populations, suggesting that higher intake and/or greater investment in food comminution may have favoured increased body growth, before later loss of tooth efficiency due to severe wear. These results illustrate how independent selection in both subspecies, that diverged 11,700 years BP, has resulted in the evolution of different longevity, although sexual selection has maintained a similar pattern of relative sex differences in tooth depletion. This study opens interesting questions on optimal allocation in life history trade-offs and the independent evolution of allopatric populations.