The maintenance of the permeability barrier of bladder facet cells requires a continuous fusion of discoid vesicles with the apical plasma membrane

The luminal surface of the bladder epithelium is continuously exposed to urine that differs from blood in its ionic composition and osmolality. The apical plasma membrane of facet or umbrella cells, facing the urine, is covered with rigid-looking plaques consisting of hexagonal uroplakin particles. Together with tight junctions these plaques form a specialized membrane compartment that represents one of the tightest and most impermeable barriers in the body. Plaques also occur in the membrane of cytoplasmic discoid vesicles. Here it is shown shown that synaptobrevin, SNAP23 and syntaxin are perfectly colocalized with uroplakin III at the apical plasma membrane as well as with membranes of discoid vesicles. Such a distribution suggests that discoid vesicles in facet cells may gain access to the apical plasma membrane probably by combination of homotypic and heterotypic fusion events. Furthermore, we detected uroplakin III-containing membranes of different sizes in the urine of healthy humans and rats. Probably facet cells maintain their permeability barrier by a process of continuous membrane regeneration that includes the cutting off of areas of the apical membrane and its replacement by newly fused discoid vesicles.     

Increase in membrane fluidity and opening of tight junctions have similar effects on sodium-coupled uptakes in renal epithelial cells

Apical membranes of renal epithelial cells were shown to be more rigid than other plasma membranes, due in part to the abundance of sphingomyelin among their constituent phospholipids. Tight junctions play a key role in maintaining differences between the apical and the basolateral domains of the plasma membrane with respect to their lipid composition and fluidity. To evaluate the influence of alterations of membrane fluidity on the activity of two apically located transport systems, we compared the effect of opening of tight junctions, by a preincubation period in calcium-deprived medium and of increasing fluidity, with benzyl alcohol, on Na-dependent uptakes of Pi and alpha-methyl-D-glucopyranoside (MGP) in intact, confluent LLC-PK1 cells and MDCK cells. Benzyl alcohol, at 10 mM, increased the Vmax of Pi uptake by 55 and 42% in LLC-PK1 cells and MDCK cells, respectively, but decreased the Vmax of MGP uptake in LLC -PK1 cells by 23%. Similarly to 10 mM benzyl alcohol, opening of tight junctions also increased the Vmax of Pi uptake by 45 and 46% in LLC-PK1 cells and MDCK cells, respectively, and depressed MGP uptake in LLC-PK1 cells by inducing a 15% decrease of the Vmax. None of the two maneuvers (i.e. addition of benzyl alcohol or opening of tight junctions) affected the Km values of the transport systems. From these results it is concluded that (i) the increase in membrane fluidity, achieved either by benzyl alcohol or by opening of tight junctions, affects Na-Pi and Na-glucose cotransports differently, reflecting differences in the lipid environments of the two transport systems, and (ii) membrane fluidity might play a physiological role in the modulation of the activity of transport systems.     

Three-dimensional structure of gap junctions in fragmented plasma membranes from rat liver.

Gap junctions forming extensive hexagonal crystalline sheets (unit cell dimension, a = 89 A) were obtained by mild mechanical disruption of plasma membranes from rat liver. The sheets were analysed in three dimensions by negative stain electron microscopy and Fourier image processing. The crystallographic symmetry was shown to approximate to the two-sided plane group p622, indicating that the sheets are composed of two equivalent, oppositely-facing membrane assemblies. The structure of the connexon in these near-to-native junctions is essentially the same as that found in detergent-extracted junctions, the subunits appearing slightly tilted tangential to the central six-fold axis and aligned almost perpendicular to the membrane plane.     

Implications of a non-lamellar lipid phase for the tight junction stability. Part II: Reversible modulation of transepithelial resistance in high and low resistance MDCK-cells by basic amino acids, Ca2+, protamine and protons.

The transepithelial resistance of confluent epithelial cell monolayers was monitored to investigate the influence of basic amino acids, Ca2+, protamine and protons on tight junction electrical resistance. In an accompanying paper we investigated the effect of these substances on the lamellar/hexagonal II phase transition in reconstituted phospholipid membranes containing phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine. We conclude that the permeability of tight junctions may be described by a lipid phase equilibrium where the lamellar phase corresponds to an open state and the hexagonal lipid phase to the closed state of the cell contact. This dynamic lipid model is well suited to describe the morphological as well as functional properties of the tight junctions.     

Disturbed structural interactions between microfilaments and tight junctions in rat hepatocytes during extrahepatic cholestasis induced by common bile duct ligation

 Microfilaments in epithelial cells are important for the structural and functional integrity of tight junctions. In the present study, we examined the relationship between microfilaments and tight junctions in hepatocytes of rat liver following common bile duct ligation (CBDL) for up to 2 weeks. Actin filaments and tight junctions were studied by fluorescence microscopy using 7-nitrobenzene-2-oxa-1,3-diazole phallacidin (NBD-ph) and an anti-ZO-1 antibody, respectively. Double-stained sections were examined with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Electron microscopy was applied for the assessment of structural alterations in microfilaments and in tight junctions with detergent-extraction and freeze-fracture preparations. Our results showed that F-actin was present at the entire plasma membrane of hepatocytes in control liver, whereas CBDL increased the amount of F-actin mainly at the bile canalicular and lateral plasma membranes. Simultaneously, the immunofluorescence of ZO-1 underwent striking changes, i.e., from a uniform to an irregular staining pattern with various fluorescence intensities. CLSM demonstrated a colocalization of ZO-1 and F-actin in control liver and its deterioration in CBDL liver. Electron microscopy showed marked alterations of microfilaments and tight junctions due to CBDL. It is concluded that actin filaments are intimately associated with tight junctions in normal hepatocytes. CBDL impairs this association by progressively diminishing the structural interaction between F-actin and ZO-1, which may in turn lead to functional disturbances of tight junctions. Accepted: 28 August 1996     

Determination of apical membrane polarity in mammary epithelial cell cultures: The role of cell-cell, cell-substratum, and membrane-cytoskeleton interactions

The membrane glycoprotein, PAS-O, is a major differentiation antigen on mammary epithelial cells and is located exclusively in the apical domain of the plasma membrane. We have used 734B cultured human mammary carcinoma cells as a model system to study the role of tight junctions, cell-substratum contacts, and submembraneous cytoskeletal elements in restricting PAS-O to the apical membrane. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectronmicroscopy experiments demonstrated that while tight junctions demarcate PAS-O distribution in confluent cultures, apical polarity could be established at low culture densities when cells could not form tight junctions with neighboring cells. In such cultures the boundary between apical and basal domains was observed at the point of cell contact with the substratum. Immunocytochemical analysis of these cell-substratum contacts revealed the absence of a characteristic basement membrane containing laminin, collagen (IV), and heparan sulfate proteoglycan. However, serum-derived vitronectin was associated with the basal cell surface and the cells were shown to express the vitronectin receptor on their basolateral membranes. Additionally, treatment of cultures with antibodies against the vitronectin receptor caused cell detachment. We suggest, then, that interactions between vitronectin and its receptor, are responsible for establishment of membrane domains in the absence of tight junctions. The role of cytoskeletal elements in restricting PAS-O distribution was examined by treating cultures with cytochalasin D, colchicine, or acrylamide. Cytochalasin D led to a redistribution of PAS-O while colchicine and acrylamide did not. We hypothesize that PAS-O is restricted to the apical membrane by interactions with a microfilament network and that the cytoskeletal organization is dependent upon cell-cell and cell-substratum interactions.     

Occludin: a novel integral membrane protein localizing at tight junctions

Recently, we found that ZO-1, a tight junction-associated protein, was concentrated in the so called isolated adherens junction fraction from the liver (Itoh, M., A. Nagafuchi, S. Yonemura, T. Kitani-Yasuda, Sa. Tsukita, and Sh. Tsukita. 1993. J. Cell Biol. 121:491-502). Using this fraction derived from chick liver as an antigen, we obtained three monoclonal antibodies specific for a approximately 65-kD protein in rats. This antigen was not extractable from plasma membranes without detergent, suggesting that it is an integral membrane protein. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy with these mAbs showed that this approximately 65-kD membrane protein was exclusively localized at tight junctions of both epithelial and endothelial cells: at the electron microscopic level, the labels were detected directly over the points of membrane contact in tight junctions. To further clarify the nature and structure of this membrane protein, we cloned and sequenced its cDNA. We found that the cDNA encoded a 504-amino acid polypeptide with 55.9 kDa. A search of the data base identified no proteins with significant homology to this membrane protein. A most striking feature of its primary structure was revealed by a hydrophilicity plot: four putative membrane-spanning segments were included in the NH2-terminal half. This hydrophilicity plot was very similar to that of connexin, an integral membrane protein in gap junctions. These findings revealed that an integral membrane protein localizing at tight junctions is now identified, which we designated as "occludin."     

The septate junction limits mobility of lipophilic markers in plasma membranes ofHydra vulgaris (attenuata)

Summary Fluorescent lipophilic probes were used to study the role of septate junctions in maintaining distinct apical and basolateral domains of plasma membranes in epithelial cells of hydra. In short-term experiments, a 16-carbon chain aminofluorescein probe (AFC₁₆) was localized to the apical plasma membranes of ectodermal and endodermal epithelial cells when presented in the culture medium or injected into the gastric lumen, but did not demarcate basolateral membranes. In longer term experiments, basolateral membranes were stained and the staining was independent of temperature conditions. A dual 18-carbon chain indocarbocyanine probe (DiIC₁₈) gradually diffused across the septate junction to label basolateral membranes at room temperature, but not at 4°C. DiIC₁₈ also filled and stained certain mounted nematocytes. The results indicate that in hydra, lipophilic probes may be limited in mobility within the membrane plane by the septate junctions in a manner similar to vertebrate tight junctions, and that apical membranes of mature nematocytes are differentially permeable.     

Fine structures of sponge cell membranes: comparative study with freeze-fracture and conventional thin section methods

Freeze-fracture replicas of sponge cell membranes revealed in general a low density of intramembranous particles, with the exceptions of the membrane (silicalemma) surrounding the siliceous spicules in Ephydatia and the membranes of spherulous cells in Chondrosia. In addition, several types of particle arrangements were observed. A classical necklace is present at the base of the choanocyte flagellum. Rosettes of particles are particularly obvious in the apical membranes of choanocytes, where they are associated with the fuzzy coat covering these cells. Parallel ridges of particles were observed along the microvilli of the choanocyte collar, at sites of insertion of connecting filaments. Rows of particles were observed in the plasma membrane of pinacocytes in Ephydatia where they are located on areas deformed by protruding fibrillar inclusions. Pinacocyte plasma membranes in this species also can contain accumulations of particles which are likely related to desmosomes. Single rows of aligned particles and double rows of staggered particles (sometimes organized in large plates) in addition to rhombic particle arrays were encountered on replicas of marine sponge cell membranes. No classical arrangements corresponding to gap junctions, tight junctions or septate desmosomes were observed. The significance of these data is analysed.     

Differentiation of a clone isolated from the HT29 cell line: polarized distribution of histocompatibility antigens (HLA) and of transferrin receptors

The HT29 cell line, derived from a human colon adenocarcinoma, is able to differentiate if galactose replaces glucose in the culture medium. We have isolated a clone (HT29-18) from this cell line which displays differentiated properties of the parent cell line. HT29-18 cells grown in glucose-containing medium form multiple layers of round cells without specific cell-cell adhesion. In contrast, when grown in galactose-containing medium, they form a monolayer with tight junctions and exhibit a well differentiated brush border at their apical membrane, which faces the culture medium. The polarized properties of HT29-18 cells grown in galactose-containing medium were demonstrated by immunofluorescent techniques with antibodies against 2 plasma membrane proteins. Class I histocompatibility antigens (HLA) and transferrin receptors, 2 well characterized integral membrane proteins, are uniformly distributed on the cell surface of undifferentiated HT29-18 cells, but acquire a polarized distribution during differentiation, localized on the basolateral membranes and absent from the apical surface. Binding of 125I-labeled transferrin was used to determine transferrin receptor distribution on apical and basolateral membranes. Functional tight junctions in the differentiated cultures were demonstrated, as the monolayer was impermeable to a permeation dye (ruthenium red) as well as to antibodies. The sealing of these tight junctions is, as in vivo, Ca++-dependent as they could be opened by a short incubation in Ca++-free medium.     

The tight junction as a barrier to cholesterol in canine epithelial cells

Filipin has been used to test several models of continuity or flow of lipid components through the tight junction. Cultured canine kidney cells (MDCK) were fixed and incubated in the presence of filipin. Freeze-fracture replicas were analyzed and densities of filipin-cholesterol complexes measured. Fractures of membranes linked with tight junctions were compared statistically to determine whether filipin-cholesterol complexes (protrusions and pits, independently) were randomly distributed between the two membranes of cells separated by the tight junction. The results indicate that filipin-cholesterol complexes are not randomly distributed across the tight junction. If the density of filipin-cholesterol complexes is an accurate indication of membrane cholesterol concentration, then there is a difference in the cholesterol concentration between leaflets of membranes joined by tight junctions and models of the tight junction which suggest leaflet continuity across the junction are in error.     

Astrocytes and Neurons Express the Tight Junction-Specific Protein Occludin in Vitro

The expression of occludin, an integral plasma membrane protein specifically located at tight junctions, was studied in various epithelial and nonepithelial tissues by means of RT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunofluorescent staining. Besides detection in epithelial and endothelial tissue, expression of occludin was found in primary and secondary cultures of neurons and astrocytes. Differentiation of astrocytes in vitro led to a marked decrease in occludin expression. Extractability of occludin from plasma membranes differed considerably between epithelial and nonepithelial cells. Following treatment with Triton X-100, occludin was completely extracted from astrocytic membranes but not from membranes derived from MDCK cells, suggesting a difference in the cytoplasmic and/or plasma membrane anchoring of occludin between these cell types.     

Tight junction development between cultured hepatoma cells: Possible stages in assembly and enhancement with dexamethasone

Freeze-fracture and thin-section methods were used to study tight junction formation between confluent H4-II-E hepatoma cells that were plated in monolayer culture in media with and without dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid. Three presumptive stages in the genesis of tight junctions were suggested by these studies: (1) “formation zones” (smooth P-fracture face ridges deficient in intramembranous particles), apparently matched across a partially reduced extracellular space, develop between adjacent cells; (2) linear strands and aggregates of 9–11 nm particles collect along the ridges of the formation zones. The extracellular space was always reduced when these structures were found matched with pits in gentle E-face depressions; (3) the linear arrays of particles on the ridges associate within the membranes to form the fibrils characteristic of mature tight junctions. The formation zones resemble tight junctions in terms of size, complexity and the patterns of membrane ridges. Although some of the beaded particle specialization may actually be gap junctions, it is unlikely that all can be interpreted in this way. No other membrane structures were detected that could represent developmental stages of tight junctions. Dexamethasone (at 2 × 10^?6 M) apparently stimulated formation of tight junctions. Treated cultures had a greater number of formation zones and mature tight junctions, although no differences in qualitative features of the junctions were noted.     

Na+-dependent glucose transporter SGLT1 is localized in the apical plasma membrane upon completion of tight junction formation in MDCK cells

SGLT1, an isoform of Na⁺-dependent glucose transporters, is localized at the apical plasma membrane in the epithelial cells of the small intestine and the kidney. In the present study we examined its location in SGLT1 cDNA-transfected MDCK cells, which form an epithelial sheet connected by tight junctions in culture. Formation of tight junctions was monitored by staining for occludin, an integral tight junction protein. In the cells demarcated by an uninterrupted occludin meshwork, SGLT1 was specifically localized at the apical plasma membrane, showing that SGLT1 has a signal to accomplish this restricted localization. In the cells with little or no occludin accumulation in the tight junction, however, SGLT1 was present along the entire aspect of the plasma membrane. Similar distribution of SGLT1 was observed in the cells as long as the occludin meshwork remained incomplete. These observations sugget that apical localization of SGLT1 occurs upon the completion of the uninterrupted meshwork of tight junctions.     

On the structure of isolated junctions between communicating cells

Summary Gap junctions are specialized regions of contact between apposed plasma membranes of communicating cells. They are composed of hexagonally arranged units (connexons) embedded in plasma membranes and linked together in the extracellular space. The three-dimensional structure of the connexon, was obtained by Fourier analysis on specimens of isolated rat liver gap junctions. The connexon is an annular oligomer, composed of six subunits, that protrudes from both sides of the plasma membrane. The subunits are tangentially displaced about the connexon axis. A narrow channel is located along the connexon, axis spanning the thickness of the junction, but it is greatly reduced in the hydrophobic zones of the membranes. Two closely related forms of isolated gap junctions which have different connexon subunit structures but the same hexagonal lattice, were obtained. The transition between the two forms of communicating junctions seen in isolation is produced by radial inward motion of the connexon subunits near their cytoplasmic surfaces and a reduction of their inclination tangential to the 6-fold axis. Similar rearrangement of essentially rigid subunits embedded in the membrane could provide a mechanism for modulation of the junction permeability. Presented in the symposium on Molecular and Morphological Aspects of Cell-Cell Communication at the 31st Annual Meeting of the Tissue Culture Association, St. Louis, Missouri, June 1–5, 1980. This symposium was supported in part by Contract 263-MD-025754 from the National Cancer Institute and the Fogarty International Center. This work was supported by NH Grants 5P1GM23911-07 and 5T32-6M07403-04.     

Freeze-fracture study of the epidermal cells of a teleost with particular reference to intercellular junctions and permeability to tracer

The plasmatic membranes, the intercellular junctions and the intercellular spaces of the epidermis of the fish Pimelodus maculatus were studied by freeze-fracture and by lanthanum methods. The observations has confirmed the presence of desmosomes. Gap junctions were not found and the tight junctions can be seen very rarely, arranged to form small discrete maculae. The finger-print pattern due to the microridges of the apical plasma membrane of the superficial cells was studied by direct replicas. The tracer penetrates all the intercellular epidermal spaces but failed to penetrate the dermis, suggesting the presence of a barrier at the dermo-epidermal level.     

Development of Sertoli cell junctional specializations and the distribution of the tight-junction-associated protein ZO-1 in the mouse testis

Basally located tight junctions between Sertoli cells in the postpubertal testis are the largest and most complex junctional complexes known. They form at puberty and are thought to be the major structural component of the "blood-testis" barrier. We have now examined the development of these structures in the immature mouse testis in conjunction with immunolocalization of the tight-junction-associated protein ZO-1 (zonula occludens 1). In testes from 5-day-old mice, tight junctional complexes are absent and ZO-1 is distributed generally over the apicolateral, but not basal, Sertoli cell membrane. As cytoskeletal and reticular elements characteristic of the mature junction are recruited to the developing junctions, between 7 and 14 days, ZO-1 becomes progressively restricted to tight junctional regions. Immunogold labeling of ZO-1 on Sertoli cell plasma membrane preparations revealed specific localization to the cytoplasmic surface of tight junctional regions. In the mature animal, ZO-1 is similarly associated with tight junctional complexes in the basal aspects of the epithelium. In addition, it is also localized to Sertoli cell ectoplasmic specializations adjacent to early elongating, but not late, spermatids just prior to sperm release. Although these structures are not tight junctions, they do have a similar cytoskeletal arrangement, suggesting that ZO-1 interacts with the submembrane cytoskeleton. These results show that, in the immature mouse testis, ZO-1 is present on the Sertoli cell plasma membrane in the absence of recognizable tight junctions. In the presence of tight junctions, however, ZO-1 is found only at the sites of junctional specializations associated with tight junctions and with elongating spermatids.     

Unusual features of intercellular junctions in the larvacean Oikopleura dioica

Summary In the pelagic larvacean Oikopleura dioica, the epithelium lining the alimentary tract consists of ciliated and unciliated cell types. The ciliated cells also exhibit an apical border of long microvilli. Between the microvilli, the cellular membrane often projects deeply down into the cytoplasm; the membranes of these invaginations and those of apicolateral interdigitations may be associated with one another by tight junctions. Some of these junctions may be autocellular. The tight junctions are seen by freeze-fracture to be very simple in construction, composed of a single row of intramembranous particles, which may be fused into a P-face ridge. There is a dense cytoplasmic fuzz associated with these tight junctions which may extend into adjoining zonula adhaerens-like regions. The invaginations of the apical membranes are, in addition, associated by gap junctions which may also be autocellular. More conventional homocellular and heterocellular tight and gap junctions occur along the lateral borders of ciliated cells and between ciliated and unciliated cells. These gap junctions possess a reduced intercellular cleft and typical P-face connexons arranged in macular plaques, with complementary E-face pits. Both cell types exhibit extensive stacks of basal and lateral interdigitations. The tight junctions found here are unusual in that they are associated with a dense cytoplasmic fuzz which is normally more characteristic of zonulae adhaerentes.     

PERMEABILITY OF SERTOLI CELL TIGHT JUNCTIONS TO LANTHANUM AFTER LIGATION OF DUCTUS DEFERENS AND DUCTULI EFFERENTES

The permeability of Sertoli cell tight junctions to lanthanum administered during fixation has been compared in rats after ligation of the ductus deferens and after ligation of the ductuli efferentes. In both control and vasoligated testes, lanthanum penetrated only short distances into the Sertoli cell tight junctions before stopping abruptly. The tight junction, consisting of numerous pentalaminar fusions of contiguous Sertoli cell membranes, prevented diffusion of lanthanum into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous epithelium. In rats with ligated ductuli efferentes, lanthanum completely permeated many Sertoli cell tight junctions and occupied intercellular spaces of the adluminal compartment. In spite of their newly acquired permeability to lanthanum, tight junctions retained characteristic ultrastructural features, including numerous membrane fusions. When lanthanum-filled tight junctions were sectioned en face, membrane fusions appeared as pale lines in lakes of electron-opaque tracer. These linearly extensive fasciae occludentes occasionally ended blindly, suggesting that lanthanum may have traversed the junction by diffusing around such incomplete barriers. The increased permeability of Sertoli cell tight junctions after efferent ductule ligation, which caused rapid testicular weight gain followed by atrophy, indicates that tight junctions are sensitive to enforced retention of testicular secretions inside the seminiferous tubules. The apparent normalcy of Sertoli cell tight junctions after vasoligation, which had no effect on testis weight, supports the view that blockage of testicular secretions distal to the epididymis is relatively innocuous.