The interaction of nitrotyrosine-83 plastocyanin with cytochromes f and c: pH dependence and the effect of an additional negative charge on plastocyanin.

Spinach plastocyanin was selectively modified using tetranitromethane which incorporates a nitro group ortho to the hydroxyl group of tyrosine 83 (Anderson, G.P., Draheim, J.E. and Gross, E.L. (1985) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 810, 123-131). This tyrosine residue has been postulated to be part of the cytochrome f binding site on plastocyanin. Since the hydroxyl moiety of nitrotyrosine 83 is deprotonated above its pK of 8.3, it provides a useful modification for studying the effect of an extra negative charge on the interaction of plastocyanin with cytochrome f. No effect on cytochrome f oxidation was observed at pH 7 under conditions in which the hydroxyl moiety is protonated. However, the rate of cytochrome f oxidation increased at pH values greater than 8, reaching a maximum at pH 8.6 and decreasing at still higher pH values. The increase was half-maximal at pH 8.3 which is the pK for the hydroxyl moiety on nitrotyrosine 83. In contrast, the rate of cytochrome f oxidation for control plastocyanin was independent of pH from pH 7 to 8.6. These results show that increasing the negative charge on plastocyanin at Tyr-83 increases the ability to react with cytochrome f, supporting the hypothesis that cytochrome f interacts with plastocyanin at this location. In contrast, the reaction of Ntyr-83 plastocyanin with mammalian cytochrome c was independent of pH, suggesting that its mode of interaction with plastocyanin is different from that of cytochrome f. A comparison of the effects of Ntyr-83 modification of plastocyanin with the carboxyl- and amino-group modifications reported previously suggests that plastocyanin binds to cytochrome f in such a way that electrons could be donated to plastocyanin at either of its two binding sites.     

Plastocyanin cytochrome f interaction

Spinach plastocyanin and turnip cytochrome f have been covalently linked by using a water-soluble carbodiimide to yield an adduct of the two proteins. The redox potential of cytochrome f in the adduct was shifted by -20 mV relative to that of free cytochrome f, while the redox potential of plastocyanin in the adduct was the same as that of free plastocyanin. Solvent perturbation studies showed the degree of heme exposure in the adduct to be less than in free cytochrome f, indicating that plastocyanin was linked in such a way as to bury the exposed heme edge. Small changes were also observed when the resonance Raman spectrum of the adduct was compared to that of free cytochrome f. The adduct was incapable of interacting with or donating electrons to photosystem I. Peptide mapping and sequencing studies revealed two sites of linkage between the two proteins. In one site of linkage, Asp-44 of plastocyanin is covalently linked to Lys-187 of cytochrome f. This represents the first identification of a group on cytochrome f that is involved in the interaction with plastocyanin. The other site of linkage involves Glu-59 and/or Glu-60 of plastocyanin to as yet unidentified amino groups on cytochrome f. Euglena cytochrome c-552 could also be covalently linked to turnip cytochrome f, although with a lower efficiency than spinach plastocyanin. In contrast, a variety of cyanobacterial cytochrome c-553's and a cyanobacterial plastocyanin could not be covalently linked to turnip cytochrome f.     

Single-step method for purification of Shiga toxin-1 B subunit using receptor-mediated affinity chromatography by globotriaosylceramide-conjugated octyl sepharose CL-4B.

A new single-step purification method for Shiga toxin (Stx) was developed using receptor-mediated affinity chromatography, in which Gb3Cer (globotriaosylceramide) was conjugated to octyl Sepharose CL-4B as a carrier. This method achieves high yield and high purity in a small column on which Gb3Cer has been immobilized at high density. Using this affinity column, the Stx1 B subunit was purified with homogeneity by a one-step procedure from a crude extract of recombinant Stx1 B subunit-producing Escherichia coli. The purified Stx1 B subunit conserved a natural pentamer structure confirmed by gel filtration and sedimentation equilibrium analysis. Furthermore, the purified Stx1 B subunit was able to bind specifically to Gb3Cer expressed on Burkitt's lymphoma cells. This versatile purification method can be used to isolate various types of natural as well as recombinant Stx, facilitating fundamental studies of human diseases caused by this toxin.     

Purification of human plasma fibronectin using immobilized gelatin and Arg affinity chromatography

This protocol describes a method for purification of fibronectin (Fn) from human plasma based on a combination of gel filtration and affinity chromatography steps. Clarified plasma is first loaded onto a Sepharose CL-4B column and unbound material is sequentially purified on columns containing covalently coupled gelatin and Arg. The elution conditions are optimized to obtain a homogeneous preparation of Fn on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Although the Fn yield is expected to be lower than that obtained using other methods, affinity adsorbents based on gelatin and Arg and gentle elution steps offer advantages including a high purity of the preparation and a correctly folded protein. The preparation can be useful for interaction studies and analysis of biological and immunological activities of Fn.     

Purification by hydrophobic chromatography of soluble cytochrome b5 of human erythrocytes

Soluble cytochrome b5 of human erythrocytes was purified very effectively by hydrophobic chromatography using a butyl-Toyopearl 650 column. Cytochrome b5 was adsorbed tightly on the column in the presence of 60% saturated ammonium sulfate, and was eluted at 40% saturation of ammonium sulfate in the elution buffer. The chromatography gave a good yield of cytochrome b5 of the highest purity so far reported as estimated from the 414 nm to 280 nm absorbance ratio of the oxidized form of the cytochrome b5. The value obtained with the cytochrome b5 purified in this study was 6.57, and is higher than the previously reported highest value of 6.4 (Hultquist, D.E., Dean, R.T. and Douglas, R.H. (1974) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 60, 28-34). Spectral properties including molecular absorption coefficients were determined using the cytochrome b5 purified by this method.     

Cytochrome f and plastocyanin kinetics in Chlorella pyrenoidosa. II. Reduction kinetics and electric field increase in the 10 ms range

On dark-adapted Chlorella, after one flash, plastocyanin (PC) undergoes reduction with a half-time of 7 ms. After 4 or 5 flashes, the reduction of PC+ in the 10 ms range is suppressed, and the level of oxidized plastocyanin increases during the next few flashes before reaching a stationary value. Cytochrome f exhibits approximately the same pattern. The reduction of PC+ and cytochrome f+ in the 10 ms range is correlated with an increase of the electrice field named phase b (Joliot, P. and Delosme, R., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 357 (1974) 267-284). Both need the presence of a compound R' in the reduced state. A dark electron transfer involving a carrier of electrons across the membrane, a proton carrier, R' as terminal reducant, PC+ and cytochrome f+ as terminal oxidants, would account for this field generation. Cooperation between the electron transfer chains is implied at the level of plastocyanin oxidation. An equilibrium constant of about 2 is observed between cytochrome f and plastocyanin before 1 ms and after 500 ms after the photochemical reactions. We observe that cytochrome f and plastocyanin are not connected from 1 to 100 ms after a photochemical reaction. The equilibrium constant between plastocyanin and P-700 remains large [20] under these conditions.     

Lipid and subunit III depleted cytochrome c oxidase purified by horse cytochrome c affinity chromatography in lauryl maltoside

Cytochrome oxidase is purified from rat liver and beef heart by affinity chromatography on a matrix of horse cytochrome c-Sepharose 4B. The success of this procedure, which employs a matrix previously found ineffective with beef or yeast oxidase, is attributed to thorough dispersion of the enzyme with nonionic detergent and a low density of cross-linking between the lysine residues of cytochrome c and the cyanogen bromide activated Sepharose. Beef heart oxidase is purified in one step from mitochondrial membranes solubilized with lauryl maltoside, yielding an enzyme of purity comparable to that obtained on a yeast cytochrome c matrix [Azzi, A., Bill, K., & Broger, C. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79, 2447-2450]. Rat liver oxidase is prepared by hydroxyapatite and horse cytochrome c affinity chromatography in lauryl maltoside, yielding enzyme of high purity (12.5-13.5 nmol of heme a/mg of protein), high activity (TN = 270-400 s-1), and very low lipid content (1 mol of DPG and 1 mol of PI per mol of aa3). The activity of the enzyme is characterized by two kinetic phases, and electron transfer can be stimulated to maximal rates as high as 650 s-1 when supplemented with asolectin vesicles. The rat liver oxidase purified by this method does not contain the polypeptide designated as subunit III. Comparisons of the kinetic behavior of the enzyme in intact membranes, solubilized membranes, and the purified delipidated form reveal complex changes in kinetic parameters accompanying the changes in state and assay conditions, but do not support previous suggestions that subunit III is a critical factor in the binding of cytochrome c at the high-affinity site on oxidase or that cardiolipin is essential for the low-affinity interaction of cytochrome c. The purified rat liver oxidase retains the ability to exhibit respiratory control when reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles, providing definitive evidence that subunit III is not solely responsible for the ability of cytochrome oxidase to produce or respond to a membrane potential or proton gradient.     

Method of purification of glucose oxidase by means of affinity chromatography on immunoabsorbent]

The possibility to purify glucose oxidase from Penicillium vitale on immunosorbent containing specific antibodies to the enzyme covalently bound with Sepharose 4B is studied. The method of affinity chromatography was applied, beside routine methods of fractionating blood serum proteins, to isolate specific antibodies from antiserum of rabbits immunized with glucose oxidase. Immobilized on Sepharose glucose oxidase was used as biospecific sorbent. Specific antibodies to the enzyme were isolated using chromatograpy of gamma-globulins mixture followed by protein desorption from the column with 1 M NaC1 and 3% glucose. Antibodies were immobilized by their covalent binding to activated Sepharose. The immunosorbent obtained was used to purify low active preparation of glucose oxidase by means of affinity chromatography under conditions worked out for the antibodies isolation. The enzyme was eluted from the column with 1 M NaC1 (pH 3.0) containing 3% glucose. 5-Fold purified enzyme preparation was isolated.     

Side-chain interactions in the plastocyanin-cytochrome f complex

Cytochrome f and plastocyanin are redox partners in the photosynthetic electron-transfer chain. Electron transfer from cytochrome f to plastocyanin occurs in a specific short-lived complex. To obtain detailed information about the binding interface in this transient complex, the effects of binding on the backbone and side-chain protons of plastocyanin have been analyzed by mapping NMR chemical-shift changes. Cytochrome f was added to plastocyanin up to 0.3 M equiv, and the plastocyanin proton chemical shifts were measured. Out of approximately 500 proton resonances, 86% could be observed with this method. Nineteen percent demonstrate significant chemical-shift changes and these protons are located in the hydrophobic patch (including the copper ligands) and the acidic patches of plastocyanin, demonstrating that both areas are part of the interface in the complex. This is consistent with the recently determined structure of the complex [Ubbink, M., Ejdeb?ck, M., Karlsson, B. G., and Bendall, D. S. (1998) Structure 6, 323-335]. The largest chemical-shift changes are found around His87 in the hydrophobic patch, which indicates tight contacts and possibly water exclusion from this part of the protein interface. These results support the idea that electron transfer occurs via His87 to the copper in plastocyanin and suggest that the hydrophobic patch determines the specificity of the binding. The chemical-shift changes in the acidic patches are significant but small, suggesting that the acidic groups are involved in electrostatic interactions but remain solvent exposed. The existence of small differences between the present data and those used for the structure may imply that the redox state of the metals in both proteins slightly affects the structure of the complex. The chemical-shift mapping is performed on unlabeled proteins, making it an efficient way to analyze effects of mutations on the structure of the complex.     

磷酸酪氨酸蛋白专一抗体的制备和纯化

以偶联磷酸化酪氨酸的牛血清白蛋白（ＢＳＡ）作为免疫原免疫兔获得抗血清．自抗血清中分离获得抗体．自酪胺合成磷酸酪胺,并偶联到溴化氰活化的Ｓｅｐｈａｒｏｓｅ４Ｂ上．抗体经磷酸酪胺－Ｓｅｐｈａｒｏｓｅ４Ｂ亲和柱纯化,所得抗体专一性强,Ｄｏｔｂｌｏｔ显示：抗体仅对酪氨酸磷酸化的蛋白质包括酪氨酸磷酸化的血清白蛋白,溶菌酶,卵清蛋白起抗原抗体反应,而不识别非酪氨酸磷酸化的溶菌酶,卵清蛋白,也不识别作为免疫原的骨架成分ＢＳＡ,也不识别丝氨酸磷酸化的卵清蛋白和苏氨酸磷酸化的卵清蛋白．     

Solubilization and partial purification of cytochrome P-450 from rat lung microsomes

Cytochrome P-450 from rat lung microsomes has been solubilized and purified 8-fold by using affinity chromatography on an ω-amino-$\text{n}$-octyl derivative of Sepharose 4B. The purified fraction was free of cytochrome $\text{b}$₅ and NADPH-cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase and showed spectral characteristics similar to those of lung microsomal cytochrome P-450. When combined with NADPH-cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase partially purified from liver microsomes, the cytochrome P-450 fraction supported the hydroxylation of benzo (α)pyrene and the activity was proportional to the content of the hemoprotein. No absolute requirement for phosphatidylcholine was found.     

Purification by hydrophobic chromatography of soluble cytochrome b5 of human erythrocytes

Soluble cytochrome b₅ of human erythrocytes was purified very effectively by hydrophobic chromatography using a butyl-Toyopearl 650 column. Cytochrome b₅ was adsorbed tightly on the column in the presence of 60% saturated ammonium sulfate, and was eluted at 40% saturation of ammonium sulfate in the elution buffer. The chromatography gave a good yield of cytochrome b₅ of the highest purity so far reported as estimated from the 414 nm to 280 nm absorbance ratio of the oxidized form of the cytochrome b₅. The value obtained wit the cytochrome b₅ purified in this study was 6.57, and is higher than the previously reported highest value of 6.4 (Hultquist, D.E., Dean, R.T. and Douglas, R.H. (1974) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 60, 28–34). Spectral properties including molecular absorption coefficients were determined using the cytochrome b₅ purified by this method.     

Isolation and partial characterization of the cytochrome c oxidase of Micrococcus luteus (lysodeikticus)

The cell membrane of Micrococcus luteus (lysodeikticus) contains a respiratory chain composed of hemes a, b, and c, which contain 171, 457, and 407 pmol/mg protein, respectively. Cytochrome c oxidase, the heme a containing component, has been purified after solubilization in Triton X-100, by gel filtration on Sepharose 4B-CL ammonium sulfate precipitation and ion-exchange and affinity chromatographies on a yeast cytochrome c-Sepharose 4B column. The purified complex, which contains three polypeptides of apparent Mr 47,000, 31,000, and 19,000, has CN-sensitive ferrocytochrome c oxidase activity (Ki = 0.35 microM) and a characteristic absorption spectrum with maxima in the oxidized form at 595 and 426 nm and in the reduced form at 601 and 444 nm. The purified enzyme contains 17.4 nmol/mg protein and its copper content is 23.2 nmol/mg protein. The enzyme was purified about 100-fold with respect to its content in crude membranes. The total heme a yield, also with respect to crude membranes content, was 6.8%.     

Purification of liver aldehyde dehydrogenase by p-hydroxyacetophenone-sepharose affinity matrix and the coelution of chloramphenicol acetyl transferase from the same matrix with recombinantly expressed aldehyde dehydrogenase.

p-Hydroxyacetophenone was coupled to epoxy-activated Sepharose 6B to generate an affinity chromatographic matrix to purify aldehyde dehydrogenase. Purified beef liver mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase specifically bound to the support and could be eluted with p-hydroxyacetophenone. A post-ammonium sulfate (30-55%) fraction of bovine liver was applied to the affinity gel column and aldehyde dehydrogenase was effectively purified, although not to complete homogeneity, indicating the potential selectivity of the matrix. Both beef liver cytosolic and mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase bound to the column. A post-Cibacron blue Sepharose Cl-6B affinity-fractionated liver mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase was purified to complete homogeneity by p-hydroxyacetophenone-Sepharose, thus eliminating the need for the isoelectric focusing step often employed. p-Hydroxyacetophenone was found to be a competitive inhibitor against propionaldehyde and noncompetitive against NAD. Escherichia coli lysates of recombinantly expressed aldehyde dehydrogenase were purified from E. coli lysates with one major 25-kDa protein contaminant also binding to the column, as detected by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis. The 25-kDa contaminant was found to be chloramphenicol acetyl transferase from sequence analysis and binding studies.     

Purification of canine plasma renin by affinity chromatography.

An affinity column for the purfication of canine plasma renin was prepared using goat anti-renin (dog kidney) gammaG gloublins. The antiserum was prepared against a purified kidney renin preparation. The anti-renin globulins were coupled to cyanogen bromide activated Sepharose. Using the anti-renin globulin-coupled Sepharose as an immuno-adsorbant, a method was devised allowing purification of plasma renin to a 1,000-fold purity.     

An oligodeoxynucleotide affinity column for the isolation of sequence specific DNA binding proteins.

A nucleic acid affinity matrix containing a short oligodeoxynucleotide ligand has been prepared as an example of a material which can be used for the rapid and effective isolation of sequence specific DNA binding proteins. Two complementary oligodeoxynucleotides have been employed, one of which contains a small 5'-spacer arm with a terminal thiol group. Using this terminal thiol group, the ligand can be covalently coupled to Tresyl-activated Sepharose 4B or Epoxy-activated Sepharose 6B via a thioether linkage. This approach allows the specific attachment of the nucleic acid ligand via its 5'-terminus to the insoluble matrix. The double stranded affinity material was obtained by annealing of the complementary DNA fragment. As an example, we have used an eicosomer affinity column containing the sequence d(GAATTC) for the isolation of the Eco RI restriction endonuclease. Using a single column, the enzyme could be isolated by eluting the column with a single step or multistep gradient of increasing salt concentration. The enzyme was purified to 75%-85% homogeneity with yields of 0.1 mg to 0.2 mg from 0.5 g of cell paste.     

Purification of nitrate reductase from spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) by immunoaffinity chromatography using a monoclonal antibody

NADH-Nitrate reductase (EC 1.6.6.1) from spinach (Spinacea oleracea L. v. Noorman) has been purified to apparent homogeneity by immunoaffinity chromatography using a monoclonal antibody linked covalently to Sepharose 4B followed by affinity chromatography. A pre-column of covalently linked non-immune rat γ globulin prevented non-specific binding. The enzyme, released with 1 M KNO₃, was purified 1550-fold to a specific activity of 24.8 μmol NO₂⁻ produced min⁻¹, mg protein⁻¹ with a recovery of 60% of applied NADH-NR activity. Proteolytically ‘nicked’ subunits, detected by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) were removed by 5′-AMP Sepharose chromatography (Fido and Notton, Plant Sci. Lett., 37 (1984) 87).     

Assessment of the use of cyanogen bromide-activated Sepharose in analytical and preparative immunoadsorption

Procedures are described for the analytical and preparative purification of antigens based on their specific interaction with their complementary antibody immunoadsorbents prepared from cyanogen bromide-derivatized macroporous agarose matrices. In principle, the antigen to be purified in the affinity chromatography/immunoadsorption process should bind specifically and reversibly to the attached antibody, while other proteins pass through unretarded. In the case of tight binding, elution of the antigen is achieved by the use of eluting solutions of very high or very low pH, or with the use of chaotropic solutions such as 3 m KSCN. The performance of immunoadsorbents prepared from Sepharose 4B have been studied with the aim of improving the efficient utilization of immunoadsorption techniques. As a model, human serum was applied serially to several columns of Sepharose 4B sheep anti-human IgG which were then subjected to a number of successive adsorption/desorption cycles. Loading the columns with increasing amounts of serum showed that the performance was best when the antigen load was approximately threefold the ideal binding capacity. By limiting the amount of immobilized protein and carefully controlling the antigen load, significant improvements in yield and purity have been achieved. Antigen loads of threefold the potential binding capacity of the immunoadsorbent column results in the optimal yield of antigen with high purity and significant concomitant reduction in non-specific interference from other serum proteins. The non-specific adsorption which is an inherent problem and which leads to considerable inactivation of the covalently coupled antibody is highlighted. Although the popularity of such matrices is probably unsurpassed, it is clear that use has been made of them very frequently without an examination of quantitative aspects or side reactions.     

Relation between interface properties and kinetics of electron transfer in the interaction of cytochrome f and plastocyanin from plants and the cyanobacterium Phormidium laminosum

Cytochrome f and plastocyanin from the cyanobacterium Phormidium laminosum react an order of magnitude faster than their counterparts from chloroplasts when long-range electrostatic interactions have been screened out by high salt concentration [Schlarb-Ridley, B. G., et al. (2002) Biochemistry 41, 3279-3285]. To investigate the relative contributions of the reaction partners to these differences, the reactions of turnip cytochrome f with P. laminosum plastocyanin and P. laminosum cytochrome f with pea plastocyanin were examined. Exchanging one of the plant reaction partners with the corresponding cyanobacterial protein nearly abolished electron transfer at low ionic strength but increased the rate at high ionic strength. This increase was larger for P. laminosum cytochrome f than for P. laminosumplastocyanin. To identify molecular features of P. laminosum cytochrome f that contribute to the increase, the effect of mutations in the N-terminal heme-shielding peptide on the reaction with P. laminosum plastocyanin was determined. Phenylalanine-3 was converted to valine and tryptophan-4 to phenylalanine or leucine. The mutations lowered the rate constant at 0.1 M ionic strength by factors of 0.71 for F4V, 0.42 for W4F, and 0.63 for W4L while introducing little change in the shape of the ionic strength dependence curve. When the N-terminal tetrapeptide (sequence YPFW) was converted into that found in the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (YPVF), the reaction was slowed further (factor of 0.26). The N-terminal heme-shielding peptide was found to be responsible for 75% of the kinetic differences between cytochrome f from chloroplasts and the cyanobacterium when electrostatic interactions were eliminated.     

Kinetic studies on a cross-linked complex between plastocyanin cytochrome f

A cross-linked complex between plastocyanin and cytochrome f was prepared by incubation in the presence of a water soluble carbodiimide and its kinetic properties were studied. The optical spectra, oxidation-reduction potentials and isoelectric pH of plastocyanin and cytochrome f did not change upon the formation of the cross-linked complex. Studies on the ionic strength effect on the electron transfer rate from cross-linked plastocyanin to ferricyanide indicated that the negative charge on the reaction site of plastocyanin was masked upon the cross-linking. It was also suggested that the sign of the net charge near the cytochrome f heme edge changed from positive to negative upon the cross-linking. On the other hand, electrostatic interactions between cross-linked plastocyanin and P700 seemed to be essentially the same as those in the case of native plastocyanin, although the rate of electron transfer from cross-linked plastocyanin to P700 was severely reduced. We also measured the intra-complex electron transfer from cytochrome f to plastocyanin. This suggested that the covalently cross-linked complex is a valid model of the electron transfer encounter complex. Based on these results, the reaction sites of plastocyanin with P700 and cytochrome f were discussed.