Genistein induces apoptosis by stabilizing intracellular p53 protein through an APE1-mediated pathway

Genistein (GEN) has been previously shown to have a proapoptotic effect on cancer cells through a p53-dependent pathway, the mechanism of which remains unclear. One of its intracellular targets, APE1, protects against apoptosis under genotoxic stress and interacts with p53. In this current study, we explored the mechanism of the proapoptotic effect of GEN by examining the APE1–p53 protein–protein interaction. We initially showed that the p53 protein level was elevated in GEN-treated human non-small lung cancer A549 cells and cervical cancer HeLa cells. By examining both protein synthesis and degradation, we found that GEN enhances p53 intracellular stability by interfering with the interaction of APE1 and p53, which provided a plausible explanation for how GEN initiates apoptosis. Furthermore, we found that the interaction between APE1 and p53 is important for the degradation of p53 and is dependent on the redox domain of APE1 by utilizing the redox domain mutant APE1 C65A. Our data suggest that the degradation of wild-type p53 is blocked when the redox domain of APE1 is masked or interrupted. Based on this evidence, we hereby report a novel mechanism of p53 degradation through an APE1-mediated, redox-dependent pathway.     

Triptolide induces apoptosis in human leukemia cells through caspase-3-mediated ROCK1 activation and MLC phosphorylation

The diterpene triepoxide triptolide is a major active component of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F, a popular Chinese herbal medicine with the potential to treat hematologic malignancies. In this study, we investigated the roles of triptolide in apoptosis and cell signaling events in human leukemia cell lines and primary human leukemia blasts. Triptolide selectively induced caspase-dependent cell death that was accompanied by the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and Bax translocation from the cytosol to the mitochondria. Furthermore, we found that triptolide dramatically induced ROCK1 cleavage/activation and MLC and MYPT phosphorylation. ROCK1 was cleaved and activated by caspase-3, rather than RhoA. Inhibiting MLC phosphorylation by ML-7 significantly attenuated triptolide-mediated apoptosis, caspase activation, and cytochrome c release. In addition, ROCK1 inhibition also abrogated MLC and MYPT phosphorylation. Our in vivo study showed that both ROCK1 activation and MLC phosphorylation were associated with the tumor growth inhibition caused by triptolide in mouse leukemia xenograft models. Collectively, these findings suggest that triptolide-mediated ROCK1 activation and MLC phosphorylation may be a novel therapeutic strategy for treating hematological malignancies.     

Methylseleninic acid induces apoptosis of human bladder cancer cells through the ROS-mediated mitochondrial pathway

As the most common selenium derivative, methylseleninic acid (MSA) has attracted wide attention. Its apoptotic induction ability and the possible molecular mechanism in human bladder cancer (BC) J82 and T24 cells were investigated in the present study. We found that the survival of J82 and T24 cells were inhibited in a dose-dependent manner after MSA treatment. Propidium iodide (PI) staining and Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/PI double staining clarified that MSA stocked cells at G₂/M phase and caused apoptosis in J82 and T24 cells. Further, typical morphological features of apoptotic cells were also observed. Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential were also detected by dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate and Rhodamin123 staining. Meanwhile, pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine, an ROS scavenging agent, found that the apoptosis of BC cells induced by MSA was related to the production of ROS. Western blot analysis results showed that MSA interrupted Bax/Bcl-2 balance, stimulated cytochrome c release into the cytoplasm, activated caspase-9 and caspase-3, and finally induced the apoptosis of the BC cells. These findings demonstrated that MSA was able to induce apoptosis in J82 and T24 cells through ROS-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis.     

Essential role of caveolae in interleukin-6- and insulin-like growth factor I-triggered Akt-1-mediated survival of multiple myeloma cells

Caveolae, specialized flask-shaped lipid rafts on the cell surface, are composed of cholesterol, sphingolipids, and structural proteins termed caveolins; functionally, these plasma membrane microdomains have been implicated in signal transduction and transmembrane transport. In the present study, we examined the role of caveolin-1 in multiple myeloma cells. We show for the first time that caveolin-1, which is usually absent in blood cells, is expressed in multiple myeloma cells. Analysis of myeloma cell-derived plasma membrane fractions shows that caveolin-1 is co-localized with interleukin-6 receptor signal transducing chain gp130 and with insulin-like growth factor-I receptor. Cholesterol depletion by beta-cyclodextrin results in the loss of caveola structure in myeloma cells, as shown by transmission electron microscopy, and loss of caveolin-1 function. Interleukin-6 and insulin-like growth factor-I, growth and survival factors in multiple myeloma, induce caveolin-1 phosphorylation, which is abrogated by pre-treatment with beta-cyclodextrin. Importantly, inhibition of caveolin-1 phosphorylation blocks both interleukin-6-induced protein complex formation with caveolin-1 and downstream activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-1 pathway. beta-Cyclodextrin also blocks insulin-like growth factor-I-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin-responsive substrate-1 and downstream activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-1 pathway. Therefore, cholesterol depletion by beta-cyclodextrin abrogates both interleukin-6- and insulin-like growth factor-I-triggered multiple myeloma cell survival via negative regulation of caveolin-1. Taken together, this study identifies caveolin-1 and other structural membrane components as potential new therapeutic targets in multiple myeloma.     

Lck is involved in interleukin-2 induced proliferation but not cell survival in human T cells through a MAP kinase-independent pathway

The role of Lck in IL-2-induced proliferation and cell survival is still controversial. Here, we show that the Src family kinase inhibitor, PP1, reduced the IL-2-induced proliferation of human T cells significantly without inhibiting the anti-apoptotic effect of IL-2. As Lck is the only Src family kinase activated upon IL-2 stimulation in T cells, this indicates that Lck is involved in IL-2-induced proliferation but not survival. IL-2-induced MAP kinase activation was only slightly inhibited by PP1, suggesting that Lck is not essential for IL-2-induced MAP kinase activation in human T cells. We found that an IL-2-sensitive, human mycosis fungoides-derived tumor T cell line is Lck negative, and that the IL-2-induced MAP kinase activation is comparable to non-cancerous T cells, although a little delayed in kinetics. An Lck expressing clone was established by transfecting Lck into mycosis fungoides tumor T cells, but Lck had no influence on the delayed kinetics of MAP kinase activation, indicating that Lck is not essential for MAP kinase activation in mycosis fungoides tumor T cells or in non-cancerous T cells. Taken together, this indicates that Lck is involved in IL-2-induced proliferation, but not cell survival, through a pathway not involving MAP kinase.     

The SARS-Coronavirus Membrane protein induces apoptosis through modulating the Akt survival pathway

A number of viral gene products are capable of triggering apoptotic cell death through interfering with cellular signaling cascades, including the Akt kinase pathway. In this study, the pro-apoptotic role of the SARS-CoV Membrane (M) structural protein is described. We found that the SARS-CoV M protein induced apoptosis in both HEK293T cells and transgenic Drosophila. We further showed that M protein-induced apoptosis involved mitochondrial release of cytochrome c protein, and could be suppressed by caspase inhibitors. Over-expression of M caused a dominant rough-eye phenotype in adult Drosophila. By performing a forward genetic modifier screen, we identified phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK-1) as a dominant suppressor of M-induced apoptotic cell death. Both PDK-1 and Akt kinases play essential roles in the cell survival signaling pathway. Altogether, our data show that SARS-CoV M protein induces apoptosis through the modulation of the cellular Akt pro-survival pathway and mitochondrial cytochrome c release.     

Carrageenan induces interleukin-8 production through distinct Bcl10 pathway in normal human colonic epithelial cells

Carrageenan is a high molecular weight sulfated polygalactan used to improve the texture of commercial food products. Its use increased markedly during the last half century, although carrageenan is known to induce inflammation in rheumatological models and in intestinal models of colitis. We performed studies to determine its direct effects on human intestinal cells, including normal human intestinal epithelial cells from colonic surgeries, the normal intestinal epithelial cell line NCM460, and normal rat ileal epithelial cells. Cells were treated with high molecular weight lambda-carrageenan at a concentration of 1 mug/ml for 1-96 h. IL-8, IL-8 promoter activity, total and nuclear NF-kappaB, IkappaBalpha, phospho-IkappaBalpha, and Bcl10 were assessed by immunohistochemistry, Western blot, ELISA, and cDNA microarray. Increased Bcl10, nuclear and cytoplasmic NF-kappaB, IL-8 promoter activation, and IL-8 secretion were detected following carrageenan exposure. Knockdown of Bcl10 by siRNA markedly reduced the increase in IL-8 that followed carrageenan exposure in the NCM460 cells. These results show, for the first time, that exposure of human intestinal epithelial cells to carrageenan triggers a distinct inflammatory pathway via activation of Bcl10 with NF-kappaB activation and upregulation of IL-8 secretion. Since Bcl10 contains a caspase-recruitment domain, similar to that found in NOD2/CARD15 and associated with genetic predisposition to Crohn's disease, the study findings may represent a link between genetic and environmental etiologies of inflammatory bowel disease. Because of the high use of carrageenan as a food additive in the diet, the findings may have clinical significance.     

Critical role for hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck)-mediated phosphorylation of Gab1 and Gab2 docking proteins in interleukin 6-induced proliferation and survival of multiple myeloma cells

Interleukin-6 (LI-6) is a known growth and survival factor in multiple myeloma via activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling cascade. In this report we show that Grb2-associated binder (Gab) family adapter proteins Gab1 and Gab2 are expressed by multiple myeloma cells; and that interleukin-6 induces their tyrosine phosphorylation and association with downstream signaling molecules. We further demonstrate that these events are Src family tyrosine kinase-dependent and specifically identify the role of hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) as a new Gab family adapter protein kinase. Conversely, inhibition of Src family tyrosine kinases by the pyrazolopyrimidine PP2, as in kinase-inactive Hck mutants, significantly reduces IL-6-triggered activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and AKT-1, leading to significant reduction of multiple myeloma cell proliferation and survival. Taken together, these results delineate a key role for Hck-mediated phosphorylation of Gab1 and Gab2 docking proteins in IL-6-induced proliferation and survival of multiple myeloma cells and identify tyrosine kinases and downstream adapter proteins as potential new therapeutic targets in multiple myeloma.     

ERK介导幽门螺杆菌HSP60感染胃上皮细胞的IL-8分泌

目的：探讨幽门螺杆菌热休克蛋白60（H．pylori—HSP60）感染胃上皮细胞后ERK与白介素-8（IL-8）分泌的关系。方法：利用ELISA技术,对活菌（IntactH．pylori）、死菌（Heat—killedH．pylori）及H．pylori—HSP60刺激胃上皮细胞KATOIII的IL_8蛋白分泌水平进行分析,观察IL-8随以上抗原浓度梯度的变化及ERK抑制剂PD98059对其分泌量的影响;利用Westernblot技术,观察KATOⅢ胞中磷酸化ERK随IntactH．pylori、Heat—killedH．pylori及H．pylori—HSP60刺激时间的变化状况。结果：IL-8的分泌随着IntactH．pylori、Heat—killedH．pylori及H．pylori—HSP60刺激浓度的升高而增高;H．pylori刺激KATOⅢ胞1h后ERK开始表达,其中IntactH．pylori在9h时表达达到高峰,Heat·killedH．pylori在24h时达到高峰,而H．pylori-HSP60刺激KATOⅢ胞6h后ERK开始表达,9h时达到高峰;PD98059抑制了H．pylori—HSP60诱导的IL-8的分泌。结论：ERK介导了H．pylori—HSP60感染的胃上皮细胞的IL-8的分泌。     

Nox4 mediates TGF-beta1-induced retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation, proliferation, and hypertrophy in human airway smooth muscle cells

Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) plays a pivotal role in increasing airway smooth muscle mass in severe asthma by inducing proliferation and hypertrophy of human airway smooth muscle. The mechanism(s) for these effects of TGF-beta1 have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we demonstrate that TGF-beta1 is a potent inducer of expression of the nonphagocyte NAD(P)H oxidase catalytic homolog Nox4, diphenylene iodonium-inhibitable reactive oxygen species production, proliferation, and hypertrophy in cultured human airway smooth muscle cells. By confocal microscopy, TGF-beta1-induced Nox4 was localized with the endoplasmic reticulum and the nucleus, implying a role for Nox4 in regulation of both the cell cycle and protein synthesis. Consistent with this hypothesis, TGF-beta1 increased retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation at both Ser807/811 and Ser780. Silencing Nox4 prevented TGF-beta1-mediated retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation, proliferation, and cell hypertrophy. TGF-beta1 also increased phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein-1 at Thr37/46, and this was likewise blocked by silencing Nox4. This is the first report to suggest a functional role for Nox4 in cell cycle transition and to demonstrate that Nox4 influences the pathobiochemistry of asthma by generating reactive oxygen species that promote TGF-beta1-induced proliferation and hypertrophy of human airway smooth muscle.     

MKK7-mediated phosphorylation of JNKs regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of human spermatogonial stem cells

BACKGROUNDHuman spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are the basis of spermatogenesis. However, little is known about the developmental regulatory mechanisms of SSC due to sample origin and species differences.AIMTo investigates the mechanisms involved in the proliferation of human SSC.METHODSThe expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 (MKK7) in human testis was identified using immunohistochemistry and western blotting (WB). MKK7 was knocked down using small interfering RNA, and cell proliferation and apoptosis were detected by WB, EdU, cell counting kit-8 and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. After bioinformatic analysis, the interaction of MKK7 with c-Jun N-terminal kinases ( JNKs ) was verified by protein co-immunoprecipitation and WB. The phosphorylation of JNKs was inhibited by SP600125, and the phenotypic changes were detected by WB, cell counting kit-8 and fluorescence-activated cell sorting.RESULTSMKK7 is mainly expressed in human SSCs, and MKK7 knockdown inhibits SSC proliferation and promotes their apoptosis. MKK7 mediated the phosphorylation of JNKs, and after inhibiting the phosphorylation of JNKs, the phenotypic changes of the cells were similar to those after MKK7 downregulation. The expression of MKK7 was significantly downregulated in patients with abnormal spermatogenesis, suggesting that abnormal MKK7 may be associated with spermatogenesis impairment.CONCLUSIONMKK7 regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of human SSC by mediating the phosphorylation of JNKs.     

E-cadherin mediates aggregation-dependent survival of prostate and mammary epithelial cells through the retinoblastoma cell cycle control pathway

E-cadherin and the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (Rb) are traditionally associated with diverse regulatory aspects of cell growth and differentiation. However, we have discovered new evidence, which suggests that these proteins are functionally linked in a physiologic pathway required for cell survival and programmed cell death. Pharmacological activation of protein kinase C (PKC) or inducible overexpression and activation of the alpha isozyme of PKC (PKCalpha) resulted in approximately 60% apoptosis of mammary and prostate epithelial cells. Interestingly, the surviving cells had undergone dramatic aggregation concurrent with increased E-cadherin expression. When aggregation was inhibited by the addition of an E-cadherin-blocking antibody, apoptosis increased synergistically. We hypothesized that survival of the aggregated population was associated with contact-inhibited growth and that apoptosis might result from aberrant growth regulatory signals in non-aggregated, cycling cells. This hypothesis was confirmed by experiments that demonstrated that E-cadherin-dependent aggregation resulted in Rb-mediated G1 arrest and survival. Immunoblot analysis and flow cytometry revealed that hypophosphorylated Rb was present in non-aggregated, S phase cultures concurrent with synergistic cell death. We have also determined that the loss of membrane E-cadherin and subsequent hypophosphorylation of Rb in luminal epithelial cells preceded apoptosis induced by castration. These findings provide compelling evidence that suggests that E-cadherin-mediated aggregation results in Rb activation and G1 arrest that is critical for survival of prostate and mammary epithelial cells. These data also indicate that Rb can initiate a fatal growth signal conflict in non-aggregated, cycling cells when the protein is hypophosphorylated as these epithelial cells enter S phase.     

Cell density,negative proliferation control,and phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein

Cell density negative control (CDNC) of normal human fibroblast proliferation occurs after stimulation by mitogens with different signal transduction mechanism. Delayed exposure to agents that interfere with CDNC, such as doublestranded RNA and vanadate, reveals the existence of a biochemical event, involved in CDNC, that occurs 5–8 hr after the beginning of mitogenic stimulation. This is earlier than the point of “mitogenic commitment,” defined by the duration of mitogen exposure required for cell cycle entry (8–18 hr). Phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma gene product (pRB) begins 8–10 hr after mitogen stimulation and is nearly complete at 18 hr, just as the first cells enter S-phase. CDNC prevents pRB phosphorylation. Interferon β delays pRB phosphorylation by up to 20 hr but has little effect on the timing of mitogenic commitment. Thus mitogenic commitment is located in time between CDNC and pRB phosphorylation. When agents that cause a release from CDNC are applied to dense, negatively controlled cultures after 18 hr of EGF stimulation, pRB phosporylation occurs 6–8 hr after release. This suggests that the negatively controlled cells process the mitogenic signal but accumulate at a restriction point. The relatively early timing of CDNC-related events in the prereplicative phase raises the possibility that pRB phosphorylation is a consequence rather than a prerequisite for release from cell density negative control. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Hyaluronic acid of high molecular weight inhibits proliferation and induces cell death in U937 macrophage cells

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a major glycosaminoglycan component of the extracellular matrix, has regulatory influences on cells and cellular activities. To explore the effects of a high concentration (1 mg/mL) of high molecular weight HA (500-730 kD) on U937 macrophage growth dynamics, three factors that influence overall cellular growth, namely proliferation, apoptosis, and cell death, were examined. Cells were cultured with HA and were analyzed by flow cytometry every 24 hours during a 168-hour period for proliferation and the presence of apoptotic and dead cells. These analyses demonstrated that HA inhibits U937 macrophage proliferation in a time-dependent manner. Through the first 72 hours, cells exhibited slowed proliferation. However, no evidence of cell division arrest or reduced cell viability was observed. Thereafter, HA continued to diminish proliferation, but induced apoptosis. This data is consistent with regulatory influences secondary to HA binding to CD44 and/or RHAMM cell surface receptors, both of which were shown to be expressed on U937 macrophages. This study demonstrates that a high concentration of high molecular weight HA greatly inhibits macrophage population growth by the dual actions of impeding cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis.     

Tumor necrosis factor is a survival and proliferation factor for human myeloma cells

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a major survival factor for malignant plasma cells. In patients with multiple myeloma (MM), cell lines whose survival and proliferation are dependent upon addition of exogenous IL-6 have been obtained. We show here that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is also a survival factor for myeloma cell lines, although less potent than IL-6. The survival activity of TNF-alpha is not affected by anti-IL-6 or anti-gp130 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). TNF-alpha also induces myeloma cells in the cell cycle and promotes the long-term growth of malignant plasma cell lines. As TNF-alpha is produced in patients with MM and associated with a poor prognosis, these results suggest that anti-TNF-alpha therapies could be useful in this disease.     

IL-6-induced Bcl6 variant 2 supports IL-6-dependent myeloma cell proliferation and survival through STAT3

IL-6 is a growth and survival factor for myeloma cells, although the mechanism by which it induces myeloma cell proliferation through gene expression is largely unknown. Microarray analysis showed that some B-cell lymphoma-associated oncogenes such as Bcl6, which is absent in normal plasma cells, were upregulated by IL-6 in IL-6-dependent myeloma cell lines. We found that Bcl6 variant 2 was upregulated by STAT3. ChIP assay and EMSA showed that STAT3 bound to the upstream region of variant 2 DNA. Expression of p53, a direct target gene of Bcl6, was downregulated in the IL-6-stimulated cells, and this process was impaired by an HDAC inhibitor. Bcl6 was knocked down by introducing small hairpin RNA, resulting in decreased proliferation and increased sensitivity to a DNA damaging agent. Thus, STAT3-inducible Bcl6 variant 2 appears to generate an important IL-6 signal that supports proliferation and survival of IL-6-dependent myeloma cells.     

Molecular iodine induces caspase-independent apoptosis in human breast carcinoma cells involving the mitochondria-mediated pathway

Molecular iodine (I2) is known to inhibit the induction and promotion of N-methyl-n-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis, to regress 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced breast tumors in rat, and has also been shown to have beneficial effects in fibrocystic human breast disease. Cytotoxicity of iodine on cultured human breast cancer cell lines, namely MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-453, ZR-75-1, and T-47D, is reported in this communication. Iodine induced apoptosis in all of the cell lines tested, except MDA-MB-231, shown by sub-G1 peak analysis using flow cytometry. Iodine inhibited proliferation of normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells; however, it did not induce apoptosis in these cells. The iodine-induced apoptotic mechanism was studied in MCF-7 cells. DNA fragmentation analysis confirmed internucleosomal DNA degradation. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling established that iodine induced apoptosis in a time- and dose-dependent manner in MCF-7 cells. Iodine-induced apoptosis was independent of caspases. Iodine dissipated mitochondrial membrane potential, exhibited antioxidant activity, and caused depletion in total cellular thiol content. Western blot results showed a decrease in Bcl-2 and up-regulation of Bax. Immunofluorescence studies confirmed the activation and mitochondrial membrane localization of Bax. Ectopic Bcl-2 overexpression did not rescue iodine-induced cell death. Iodine treatment induces the translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor from mitochondria to the nucleus, and treatment of N-acetyl-L-cysteine prior to iodine exposure restored basal thiol content, ROS levels, and completely inhibited nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor and subsequently cell death, indicating that thiol depletion may play an important role in iodine-induced cell death. These results demonstrate that iodine treatment activates a caspase-independent and mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway.