Phenological growth stages of nashi tree (Pyrus pyrifolia): codification and description according to the BBCH scale

The phenological growth stages of nashi tree were firstly described here using the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, nashi phenology showed 8 of the 10 principal stages (0–9): bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. A schematic representation of the chronological progression of principal growth stages of nashi is also shown. The codification of the different growth stages is important for correct timing of general orchard management, particularly for disease and pest management. Besides, it will help farmers to efficiently schedule and manage nashi cultivation, as well as to improve knowledge dissemination among scientists around the World.     

Phenological growth stages of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) according to the extended BBCH scale

Jackfruit, the largest known edible fruit bearing tree, is one of the important fruit crops of India. It exhibits wide range of diversity with respect to fruit character and bulb quality. It is an important component of homestead garden because of its multifarious uses (dessert, vegetable and pickle) and high nutritive value. In spite of high food value and market potential, jackfruit is one of the poorly researched crops and there is a dearth of information about its phenology. The present study defines phenological stages of jackfruit according to the extended BBCH (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) scale using three‐digit numerical system. Eight principal growth stages, namely bud development (stage 0), shoot development (stage 1), leaf development (stage 3), specialised reproductive shoot development (stage 4), reproductive development (stage 5), flowering (stage 6), fruit development (stage 7) and fruit maturation (stage 8) have been described. A total of 42 secondary growth stages have been described and defined. In this study, bearing and non‐bearing footstalks as well as male and female phases have been defined separately. The study will act as an effective tool for providing a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenophases, as well as for efficient orchard management for ensuring higher yield and fruit quality. The scale may also be effectively used for characterisation and adaptation of germplasm and assessment of climatic impact on crop phenology.     

Phenological growth stages of jujube tree (Ziziphus jujube): codification and description according to the BBCH scale

The phenological growth stages of jujube tree are first described here using the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, jujube phenology showed 8 of the 10 principal stages (0–9): bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. A schematic representation of the chronological progression of principal growth stages of jujube is also shown. The codification of the different growth stages is important for correct timing of general orchard management, particularly for disease and pest management. Besides, it will help farmers to efficiently schedule and manage jujube cultivation, as well as to improve knowledge dissemination among scientists around the World.     

Phenological growth stages of Magnolia ×soulangeana according to the extended BBCH scale

Magnolia × soulangeana, one of the most famous ornamental trees of Magnoliaceae, is widely cultivated around the world. However, its phenological characteristics at life-cycle scale have never been detailedly reported so far. In this article, the extended BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, und Chemische Industrie) scale was applied to divide the growth and development cycle of M. × soulangeana in both juvenile phase and adult phase, and describe the characteristics of phenological development stage, so as to provide theoretical guidance for its cultivation measures implementation. Based on the BBCH phenological scale, the processes of germination (0), leaf development (1), main stem elongation (3) and dormancy (9) were observed in the juvenile phase. Likewise, the morphological changes of organs in adult phase were abundant, and eight principal growth stages were described: vegetative bud development (0), leaf development (1), shoot development (3), reproductive development (5), flowering (6), fruit development (7), maturity of fruit (8) and dormancy (9). Our newly developed scale provides a unified standard for describing and identifying the phenological period of M. × soulangeana. In addition, it is of great significance to understand the phenological characteristics of M. × soulangeana for its breeding and cultivation management.     

Phenological growth stages of loquat tree (Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.)

Conservation, characterisation and utilisation of minor fruit tree species is an important objective for diversification of agro-food production. One such fruit tree is the loquat, a tree that originated in China but is well adapted to the Mediterranean area. The conservation and utilisation of suitable germplasm requires an accurate characterisation and evaluation of the material. A first step in characterisation is to use phenotypic traits. This paper describes the phenological growth stages of loquat tree using the extended BBCH scale. Seven principal growth stages (PGS) for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development and fruit maturity and 31 secondary growth stages are described and compared with a previous scale based on Fleckinger classical methodology. An example of application of the extended BBCH scale for characterisation of loquat cultivars from IVIA germplasm collection is reported.     

Phenological growth stages of olive trees (Olea europaea)

This paper describes the phenological growth stages of olive trees using the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight principal growth stages for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence and 32 secondary growth stages are described. Advantages of the BBCH scale over other methods are discussed.     

Phenological growth stages of African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

The aim of this paper was to study the phenology of commercially cultivated representative genotypes of the Elaeis guineensis Jacq. species in two Colombian growing areas. The frequency of observations was daily, weekly or monthly depending on the stage of development under evaluation, over an 18‐month time period. Observations were made on prenursery and nursery plants and on three‐ to five‐year‐old palms starting from the zero leaf (spear leaf), through development of inflorescence, and ending with maturity and harvesting of fruit bunches. Stem observations were made on different age palms of the same cultivars. The duration of each phenological stage was measured in terms of days. The phenological growth stages were coded according to the BBCH scale (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie), consisting of three digits, because of the inclusion of intermediate stages between the principal and secondary stages in order to provide more accurate details on each development stage.     

Phenological growth stage of tropical shallot (Allium cepa L. Aggregatum group) planted from seed in lowland area based on the BBCH scale

Shallot (Allium cepa L. Aggregatum group) is an important Allium plant commonly grown in tropical countries, including Indonesia, and it is used as spice for daily cooking, medicine, cosmetics and dietary supplements. Since shallot is predominantly propagated vegetatively by bulbs, it augments pathogen accumulation which influences low seed bulb management as well as productivity. Hence, utilisation of seeds/True Seed Shallot (TSS) emerges an alternative propagation material. However, no information is available on the growth stages of shallot plants from TSS. The phenological growth stages of tropical shallot planted in lowland areas using seeds in accordance with the Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt nd CHemische Industrie (BBCH) scale are first described here. Five introduced TSS cultivars, that is, Tuk Tuk, Lokananta, Sanren, Maserati, Tropix and four landraces TSS cultivars, that is, Bima, Biru Lancor, Pancasona and Trisula, were used as planting materials to develop an extended numerical BBCH scale for the identification of different phenological growth stages of shallot from seed. The study was conducted in lowland areas under tropical conditions of Indonesia. Based on BBCH scale, phenology of tropical shallot from seed in lowland area exhibited five of the 10 principal stages (0–9): germination (stage 0), leaf development (stage 1), formation of lateral shoot/tiller of pseudostem (stage 2), development of bulb (harvestable vegetative part) (stage 4), and senescence (stage 9). The codification of the different growth stages is essential in determination of the correct timing for better crop management, particularly for transplanting, fertilisation, control of weeds, disease and pest, plant growth regulators application and harvest time. As an implication, these BBCH scales could be used in plant breeding activities to shorten the TSS life cycle.     

Impact of environmental conditions on fruit production patterns of shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn) in West Africa

A better knowledge of the impact of environmental conditions on shea tree’s fruit production is critical to improve the species management. Fruit production of 237 shea trees was monitored over five successive years (2014–2018) to understand how climatic variables, shea tree population and land use could affect fruit production patterns of the species in Burkina Faso. Data were collected in 12 shea tree populations distributed in three climatic zones with two contrast land use systems. The results showed that fruit production was negatively correlated with mean annual temperature, temperature seasonality, rainfall seasonality and solar radiation, while it was positive with annual rainfall. Therefore, fruiting modelling is needed to predict the impact of future climate change on reproductive ability of the species. In each climatic zone, fruit production was significantly different among shea tree populations (p < 0.05). Within populations, fruit production greatly varies among years with specific patterns of variation. Land use had significant effect on fruit production of shea tree (p < 0.05). Annually, shea trees produced about 12 times more in agroforestry parklands than in protected areas. Interannual variation in fruit production at individual tree level was higher in protected areas. The cultivation of shea tree is recommended to improve its fruit productivity.     

Phenological growth stages of mulberry tree (Morus sp.) codification and description according to the BBCH scale

Recently, mulberry fruits have increased rapidly the production and consumption, due to its high levels of bioactive compounds, excellent taste and nutritional value. Nevertheless there is poorly information about its phenology. In the present study, the different phenological growth stages of mulberry are characterised according to the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight of the 10 principal developmental stages from BBCH scale were described for Morus sp., starting at bud development (stage 0) and ending at the senescence and beginning of the rest period (stage 9). The BBCH code for this species provides a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenological stages in mulberry, moreover to facilitate agronomic practices.     

Application of the extended BBCH scale for the description of the growth stages of coffee (Coffea spp.)

The extended BBCH (BBCH = Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemische Industrie, Germany) scale and its associated decimal code were used to describe the growth stages of the coffee plant. Principal growth stages included germination and vegetative propagation, leaf development on the shoot of the young plant and branches of the tree, formation of branches, branch elongation, inflorescence and flower development, flowering, development of fruit, ripening of fruit and seed, and senescence. Secondary stages were also identified for each of the principal stages. Through a two digit decimal code, it is possible to identify the principal growth stages and their respective secondary stages. This scale will be of great help to coffee growers and researchers around the world for the more efficient planning of management practices and experiments.