The complex of cytochrome c and cytochrome c peroxidase: the end of the road?

Cytochrome c (Cc) and cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) form a physiological complex in the inter-membrane space of yeast mitochondria, where CcP reduces hydrogen peroxide to water using the electrons provided by ferrous Cc. The Cc-CcP system has been a popular choice of study of interprotein biological electron transfer (ET) and in understanding dynamics within a protein-protein complex. In this review we have charted seven decades of research beginning with the discovery of CcP and leading to the latest functional and structural work, which has clarified the mechanism of the intermolecular ET, addressed the putative functional role of a low-affinity binding site, and identified lowly-populated intermediates on the energy landscape of complex formation. Despite the remarkable attention bestowed on this complex, a number of outstanding issues remain to be settled on the way to a complete understanding of Cc-CcP interaction.     

Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs—part 1: background and framework

Purpose

This article is the first of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of life cycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED) which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute—a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for Life Cycle Assessment (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for improvement and promotion of the products and services on offer. These publications are a voice in the discussion on the opportunities and pertinence of implementing life cycle thinking (LCT) in small- and medium-sized enterprises and an attempt to identify potential barriers arising from specific characteristics of SMEs which could hinder or even prevent the effective implementation of life cycle techniques. Part 1 presents the situation of SMEs in Poland, general objectives of the project and organisation of the survey process.

Methods

It was decided to carry out research on the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and life cycle costing (LCC) in organisations that had received financial support for the implementation of life cycle techniques. Financial constraints, which might potentially be a reason for limited interest in LC techniques among SMEs in Poland, were taken into account. Thus, financial support provided an opportunity for the project to obtain information from a wide range of companies, not only from those companies that were particularly aware of the benefits of LC techniques or had a very good financial situation. Research based on the method of individual in-depth interviews was preceded by an analysis of literature showing the status of SMEs in Poland. Given the results, the project objectives were formulated and the ways of conducting the research were defined.

Results and discussion

The comparison of Polish SMEs with the same category of companies in the EU shows some similarities, such as the percentage of companies engaged in various businesses. The differences are expressed primarily in the financial potential, which in the case of Polish SMEs, is significantly smaller than the average in the EU. In the SME sector, there are less than half as many small businesses in Poland than in the EU. There are, however, many more microbusinesses in Poland. An evaluation of the prevalence of LCA and LCC techniques indicates that they are used by just 3 % of Polish SMEs, which is a very small proportion compared to the more than 50 % of SMEs taking any environmental measures. Information collected on specific details of Polish SMEs was used to identify the target group and develop a survey questionnaire which aimed to audit, among other things, the approach to environmental and economic analyses in the past and the approach to the LCA and/or LCC analyses that were implemented from the point of view of difficulties in their implementation and potential use of the results.

Conclusions

Part 1 of the series of articles demonstrates a marginal-scale dissemination of life cycle management techniques among Polish SMEs. Companies definitely prefer to introduce relatively simple solutions that do not require specialised knowledge or unnecessary costs, e.g. they introduce energy-saving bulbs and waste segregation. Only a small percentage of companies implement more complex activities, and most commonly, these are medium-sized companies with greater financial and human capital. So what should be done to make SMEs use life cycle techniques more frequently? Is it appropriate to make changes in the methodology and life cycle techniques as such, or should, rather, the incentive for SMEs to use LCT come from outside as a requirement of public institutions or suppliers in a supply chain? Answers to these questions are provided in the research conclusions presented in parts 2 and 3 of the series of articles.     

Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs—Part 3: LCC-related aspects

Purpose

This article is the third of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of life cycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. The purpose of the three-part series of articles is to present the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED) which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute—a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for LCA (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support SMEs in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for the improvement and promotion of the products and services on offer. The specific objective of the analysis involving the assessment of life-cycle costs of products and services was an attempt to answer the question to determine whether the assessment carried out in accordance with the life-cycle cost (LCC) methodology is a good tool for cost management in this type of business. Part 3 describes the results of studies on the assessment of the implementation of LCC in SMEs conducted in 50 companies involved in the project.

Methods

In order to assess the effectiveness of the project and the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and LCC, a survey was conducted of small- and medium-sized businesses where the implementation works had been fully completed. In total, 50 organisations agreed to participate in the LCC survey (while 46 in the LCA—part 2 paper), which was 71 % of all the companies where the LCA and LCC studies had been carried out within the project. The survey was conducted using individual in-depth interviews. Questions to the representatives of the companies referred both to aspects of their operating in the market (characteristics of a company, its market share, management systems, environmental policy, suppliers, clients) and the implementation of their environmental service (assessment of its effectiveness, motivation, difficulties in its implementation), as well as opinions on the potential applications of LCA in their current operations.

Results and discussion

The experience and observations of LCC experts resulting from their cooperation with the analysed organisations are largely supported by the results of the survey. The overall impression gained from the project is that the small- and medium-sized enterprises considered have a problem with accepting and understanding the life-cycle perspective, and show limited interest in taking liability for environmental and cost aspects beyond the mandatory legal standards and boundaries of their business operations. Nevertheless, the LCC analyses aroused much bigger interest among the companies than the environmental due to the fact that the cost aspects in companies undergoing normal development are seen as an important source of information about the structure of the costs generated with respect to the products or services provided. It is important to note that a very important factor encouraging businesses to join the studies was the fact that they were cost-free. Moreover, the planned introduction of a new product onto the market was the argument that often influenced the decision to implement the LCC. The survey has shown that companies rarely perform cost analyses including all stages of the life cycle of a product or service. Although the awareness of the importance of conducting economic researches for the entire life cycle of a product or service is great, it turned out to be problematic to unambiguously define the practical use of such an analysis, at least at the present stage of development of the companies surveyed.

Conclusions

The results obtained in the survey indicate that in the case of simple products, with a short life cycle, complex cost analyses may seem less useful. For more complex products or services, with long periods of use, high reliability required, and high operating costs, the analyses presented are useful tools that increase the economic efficiency of the projects implemented. It appears that from the point of view of polish SMEs, the usefulness of an LCA is seen mainly from the angle of opportunities for cost reduction (preferably in business) and increased sales (marketing). A good solution would be to conduct relatively simple, but integrated LCA/LCC analyses in SMEs so that the companies would clearly see the economic effects of the proposed environmental improvements.     

The Influence of Drivers and Barriers on Urban Adaptation and Mitigation Plans—An Empirical Analysis of European Cities

Cities are recognised as key players in global adaptation and mitigation efforts because the majority of people live in cities. However, in Europe, which is highly urbanized and one of the most advanced regions in terms of environmental policies, there is considerable diversity in the regional distribution, ambition and scope of climate change responses. This paper explores potential factors contributing to such diversity in 200 large and medium-sized cities across 11 European countries. We statistically investigate institutional, socio-economic, environmental and vulnerability characteristics of cities as potential drivers of or barriers to the development of urban climate change plans. Our results show that factors such as membership of climate networks, population size, GDP per capita and adaptive capacity act as drivers of mitigation and adaptation plans. By contrast, factors such as the unemployment rate, warmer summers, proximity to the coast and projected exposure to future climate impacts act as barriers. We see that, overall, it is predominantly large and prosperous cities that engage in climate planning, while vulnerable cities and those at risk of severe climate impacts in the future are less active. Our analysis suggests that climate change planning in European cities is not proactive, i.e. not significantly influenced by anticipated future impacts. Instead, we found that the current adaptive capacity of a city significantly relates to climate planning. Along with the need to further explore these relations, we see a need for more economic and institutional support for smaller and less resourceful cities and those at high risk from climate change impacts in the future.     

The origin of life and the left-handed amino-acid excess: the furthest heavens and the deepest seas?

The origin of life is an extraordinary problem that leads back to the structure and dynamics of the cosmos and early development of organic molecules. Within that wider question lies an unsolved problem that has troubled biologists for 150 years. What is the origin of the dominant presence of left-handed stereoisomers of amino acids in nature even though their synthesis normally results in an equal mixture of the right- and left-handed molecular forms? We propose that asymmetric Earth rotation caused at dawn and dusk circularly polarized UV light (CPUVL) of opposite polarity and reversed temperature profiles in the oceans. Destruction of the d-isomer by CPUVL at dusk in a sea surface hotter than at dawn created a daily l-isomer excess protected from radiation by nightfall, preserved by down-flow (diffusive, mechanical) into cold, darker regions, eventually initiating an l-amino-acid excess embodied in early marine forms. Innumerable mechanisms have been proposed for the origin of l-chiral dominance in amino acids and none proven. Since the thalidomide tragedy, homochirality of amino acids has been a growing practical issue for medicine. Understanding its origin may bring further and unexpected benefits. It may also be a modest pointer to the possibility of positive answers to whether intelligent life will have the capacity to continue to protect itself from conditions inimical to survival.     

Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs—part 2: LCA related aspects

Purpose

This article is the second part of a series of articles presenting the results of research on the implementation of lifecycle management tools in small- and medium-sized companies in Poland. This work is part of a project financed by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PAED), which began in February 2011. It was carried out by the Wielkopolska Quality Institute, a business environment institution associated with the Polish Centre for life cycle assessment (PCLCA). The main practical objective of the project was to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in their business development, e.g. by expanding their horizons beyond the sphere of their operation and identifying new areas for the improvement and promotion of the products and services they offer. The specific objective of the analysis on the environmental impact was an attempt to answer the question of whether environmental LCA is a good management tool for this type of business. Part 2 describes results of the evaluation of the implementation of LCA in SMEs conducted in 46 companies involved in the project.

Methods

In order to assess the effectiveness of the project and the effectiveness of the implementation of LCA and life cycle costing (LCC), a survey was conducted of small and medium businesses where the implementation work had been fully completed. In total, 46 organisations agreed to participate in the LCA survey, which was almost 66 % of all the companies where the LCA and LCC studies had been carried out within the project. The survey was conducted using individual in-depth interviews. Questions to the representatives of the companies referred both to aspects of their functioning in the market (characteristics of a company, its market share, management systems, environmental policy, suppliers and clients) and the operation of their environmental service (assessment of its effectiveness, motivation and difficulties in its implementation), as well as opinions on the potential applications of LCA in their current operations.

Results and discussion

The experience and observations of LCA experts resulting from their cooperation with the organisations analysed are largely supported by the results of the survey. The overall impression gained from the project is that the small- and medium-sized enterprises analysed have a problem with accepting and understanding the life cycle perspective and show limited interest in taking liability for environmental aspects beyond the mandatory legal standards and boundaries of their business operations. The survey shows that the companies rarely analyse environmental aspects appearing on many different stages of the life cycle of their products. Most of them focus on their current operations while trying to meet the mandatory legal requirements relating to environmental protection. It should be noted, however, that SMEs taking part in the studies appreciate the opportunities offered by LCA, their usefulness in business practice, recognise the potential for using life cycle techniques in the future and their impact on the management process, procedure or thinking about the products they manufacture. The result of the study is the identification of four key areas relevant to SMEs which may affect their willingness to adopt the life cycle perspective and undertake environmental measures.

Conclusions

It seems that implementing LCT in small- and medium-sized enterprises requires a special approach. These are often companies with limited human resources (often just a few people) and financial resources (often operating on the verge of survival), with a weak position in a supply chain and, therefore, having various priorities in their daily operation. The researchers also encountered awareness barriers as a result of which the idea of going beyond an organisation and making an entire LCA of a product was often simply misunderstood. The studies conducted among SMEs have shown that managers' own intuition and research on customer preferences were largely conducive to improve existing or introducing new products or services, while changes were mostly introduced due to the requirements of the market, or the desire to reduce costs. It can be assumed that their non-obligatory nature also contributed to the relatively low interest in LCA initiatives and not recognising their usefulness. It seems that it would be useful to carry out relatively simple, but integrated, LCA/LCC analyses in SMEs so that the companies would clearly see the economic effect of the proposed environmental improvements. The analyses conducted lead to the conclusion that the incentive for SMEs to take measures should come from outside, e.g. as requirements for green public procurements, or as part of assessment made by suppliers in a supply chain.     

The research on the mechanism and spatial–temporal differentiation of the coupling coordination development based on industrial cluster agglomeration

With 31 provinces and cities in Mainland China selected as the research objects, the paper explores the acting mechanism of industrial cluster, urbanization and population cluster, builds a measurement index system for the spatial–temporal coupling characteristics of industrial cluster, urbanization and population agglomeration, and then measures the coupling coordination degrees of industrial agglomeration, urbanization and population agglomeration in provinces since 2000 and researches the spatial–temporal evolution and spatial differentiation characteristics of coupling coordination degree. Research results show: ① industrial agglomeration, urbanization and population agglomeration have formed a dynamically coordinated relationship with mutual influences, mutual promotion and joint development; ② the comprehensive development levels of industrial agglomeration, urbanization and population agglomeration in China are rising year by year, but the overall coupling degree and coordination degree of the three are low, but the coupling coordination relationship will improve continuously with time, still showing obvious differences in provinces and the spatial tendency of being “high in the east and low in the west”; ③ the coupling coordination presents a continuous spatial agglomeration state, and the agglomeration intensity is “high on two ends and low in the middle”, thus forming the outstanding hot-spot in areas eastern coastal regions and the outstanding cold-spot areas in western regions; ④ the government should promote industrial agglomeration, industrial structure optimization and upgrading and urbanization, and make reasonable planning for population agglomeration degree practically and effectively, to ensure the matching and coordinated development of industrial agglomeration, population agglomeration and urban bearing capacity.     

Life-LCA: assessing the environmental impacts of a human being—challenges and perspectives

Purpose

The life-cycle assessment (LCA) method is typically applied to products, but the potential and demand for extending its use also to other applications are high. In this respect, this paper proposes an LCA concept to be used for the assessment of human beings as new study objects, namely Life-LCA. Key challenges of such a new approach and potential solutions for those are identified and discussed.

Methods

The Life-LCA concept was developed based on a detailed desktop research. Several Life-LCA-specific challenges were identified and categorized under three research questions. One of these questions focusses on the conceptual design of a Life-LCA method while the others are addressing operational issues, which are the definition of the new study system and the practical assessment of complex human consumption behaviors. Methodological solutions are proposed, e.g., based on suggestions provided in the existing methods product LCA and organizational LCA (O-LCA).

Results and discussion

Conceptual challenges arise from the general diversity, complexity, and temporal development of human lives and consumption behaviors. We introduce Life-LCA as a two-dimensional method that covers both, the new human life cycle (dimension 1) and the life cycle of the consumed products (dimension 2). Furthermore, the two types Individual Life-LCA and Lifestyle-LCA are differentiated. Especially, the definition of a general system boundary for Life-LCA and data collection and evaluation face many operational challenges. For example, the social behavior of human beings is a new factor to be considered which causes new allocation problems in LCA. Moreover, the high demand for aggregated LCA data requires specific rules for data collection and evaluation as well as a new bottom-up product clustering scheme.

Conclusions

Life-LCA, either used for the assessment of individual lives or lifestyles, has the potential to raise environmental awareness of people by making their specific environmental impacts comprehensively measurable and thus, tangible. However, many challenges need to be solved in future interdisciplinary research to develop a robust and applicable method. This paper conceptualizes such an approach and proposes solutions that can serve as a framework for ongoing method development.

     

The Fitness Check of the Birds and Habitats Directives: A discourse analysis of stakeholders’ perspectives

In 2015, the European Union’s Birds and Habitats Directives underwent an evaluation in which selected national stakeholders provided their perspectives on the directives’ implementation. Analyzing the views of different stakeholder groups from eight European member states, this study found that these views could be synthesized into three more general perspectives. The first perspective focuses on problems, indicating that these are caused by legislative drawbacks in the directives. The second perspective holds that problems are generated by improper implementation by member states. The third perspective commends the benefits of the directives in face of the existing implementation problems. Interest groups and to a minor extent governmental bodies espoused the first perspective, and environmental non-governmental organizations especially favored the third. The struggle between these three perspectives reflects ongoing debates regarding positive and negative aspects of the directives and possibilities for improving their implementation. We conclude that the relevance and impact of conservation policies should never be seen as self-evident. In order to reach the conservation goals envisaged, continuous efforts are needed to enforce and maintain environmental legislation.     

The first 5 years of Helicobacter pylori research—With an emphasis on the United Kingdom

In the 1970s, 1% of the UK population consulted with dyspepsia; fiberoptic gastroscopy allowed biopsy specimens under direct vision enabling systematic histopathology. Steer et al described clusters of flagellated bacteria closely apposed to the gastric epithelium associated with chronic active gastritis. The first UK series of Helicobacter pylori following Marshall's 1983 visit to Worcester confirmed the association of H. pylori with gastritis. UK researchers completed much early helicobacter research as there were many UK campylobacteriologists. Steer and Newell proved the Campylobacter-like organisms grown on culture were the same as those seen in the gastric mucosa using antiserum raised by inoculating rabbits with H. pylori from cultures. Wyatt, Rathbone, and others showed a strong correlation between the number of organisms, type and severity of acute gastritis, immunological response, and bacterial adhesion similar to enteropathogenic E coli. Seroprevalence studies indicated H. pylori increased with age. Histopathologists also showed peptic duodenitis was in effect “gastritis in the duodenum” caused by H. pylori, unifying its role in the pathogenesis of both gastritis and duodenal ulceration. These bacteria were initially called Campylobacter pyloridis and then C. pylori. However, electron microscopy suggested that the bacteria were not campylobacters, and this was supported by differences in fatty acid and polyacrylamide electrophoresis profiles. In-vitro tests indicated that H. pylori was susceptible to penicillins, erythromycin, and quinolones, but not trimethoprim or cefsulodin allowing development of selective media for culture. Monotherapy with erythromycin ethylsuccinate was ineffective, and patients treated with bismuth subsalicylate initially responded with clearance of H. pylori and the associated gastritis, but then many relapsed. Thus, pharmacokinetic and treatment studies were important to direct suitable dual and triple treatments. Work optimized serology, and the rapid biopsy urease and urea breath tests. The link between H.pylori and gastric cancer was established in large seroprevalence studies, and H. pylori test and treat for dyspepsia became routine.     

Negative association between parental care and sibling cooperation in earwigs: a new perspective on the early evolution of family life?

The evolution of family life requires net fitness benefits for offspring, which are commonly assumed to mainly derive from parental care. However, an additional source of benefits for offspring is often overlooked: cooperative interactions among juvenile siblings. In this study, we examined how sibling cooperation and parental care could jointly contribute to the early evolution of family life. Specifically, we tested whether the level of food transferred among siblings (sibling cooperation) in the European earwig Forficula auricularia (1) depends on the level of maternal food provisioning (parental care) and (2) is translated into offspring survival, as well as female investment into future reproduction. We show that higher levels of sibling food transfer were associated with lower levels of maternal food provisioning, possibly reflecting a compensatory relationship between sibling cooperation and maternal care. Furthermore, the level of sibling food transfer did not influence offspring survival, but was associated with negative effects on the production of the second and terminal clutch by the tending mothers. These findings indicate that sibling cooperation could mitigate the detrimental effects on offspring survival that result from being tended by low‐quality mothers. More generally, they are in line with the hypothesis that sibling cooperation is an ancestral behaviour that can be retained to compensate for insufficient levels of parental investment.     

Aquaculture: a newly emergent food production sector—and perspectives of its impacts on biodiversity and conservation

The fisheries sector in the course of the last three decades have been transformed from a developed country to a developing country dominance. Aquaculture, the farming of waters, though a millennia old tradition during this period has become a significant contributor to food fish production, currently accounting for nearly 50?% of global food fish consumption; in effect transforming our dependence from a hunted to a farmed supply as for all our staple food types. Aquaculture and indeed the fisheries sector as a whole is predominated in the developing countries, and accordingly the development strategies adopted by the sector are influenced by this. Aquaculture also being a newly emerged food production sector has being subjected to an increased level of public scrutiny, and one of the most contentious aspects has been its impacts on biodiversity. In this synthesis an attempt is made to assess the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity. Instances of major impacts on biodiversity conservation arising from aquaculture, such as land use, effluent discharge, effects on wild populations, alien species among others are highlighted and critically examined. The influence of paradigm changes in development strategies and modern day market forces have begun to impact on aquaculture developments. Consequently, improvements in practices and adoption of more environmentally friendly approaches that have a decreasing negative influence on biodiversity conservation are highlighted. An attempt is also made to demonstrate direct and or indirect benefits of aquaculture, such as through being a substitute to meet human needs for food, particularly over-exploited and vulnerable fish stocks, and for other purposes (e.g. medicinal ingredients), on biodiversity conservation, often a neglected entity.     

Practitioner attitudes in the United States and United Kingdom toward decisions at the end of life: are medical ethicists out of touch?

Objective To assess whether UK and US health care professionals share the views of medical ethicists about medical futility, withdrawing or withholding treatment, ordinary or extraordinary interventions, and the doctrine of double effect. Design, subjects, and setting Answers to a 138-item attitudinal questionnaire completed by 469 UK nurses studying the Open University course on “Death and Dying” were compared with those of a similar questionnaire administered to 759 US nurses and 687 US physicians taking the Hastings Center course on “Decisions Near the End of Life.” Results Practitioners accept the relevance of concepts widely disparaged by bioethicists: double effect, medical futility, and the distinctions between heroic and ordinary interventions and withholding and withdrawing treatment. Within the UK nurses'' group, the responses of a “rationalist” axis of respondents who describe themselves as having “no religion” are closer to the bioethics consensus on withholding and withdrawing treatment. Conclusions Professionals'' beliefs differ substantially from the recommendations of their professional bodies and from majority opinion in bioethics. Bioethicists should be cautious about assuming that their opinions will be readily accepted by practitioners.