RhoGDI2与PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路在肺癌细胞中的相关性研究

目的探讨肿瘤转移相关因子RhoGDI2与PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路在肺癌侵袭转移过程中的作用及相关机制。方法利用PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路上特异性的抑制剂,采用MTT法,伤口愈合实验及侵袭实验观察不同浓度药物对肺癌95D细胞生长侵袭转移能力的影响,通过Western Blot方法观察RhoGDI2蛋白水平的变化。结果PI3K抑制剂LY294002及mTOR抑制剂Rapamycin都能抑制肺癌细胞95D的侵袭转移能力,联合应用抑制作用更强。PI3K抑制剂LY294002处理组RhoGDI2蛋白的表达量增加,且随浓度增加RhoGDI2蛋白表达也增加。mTOR抑制剂Rapamycin组,在低浓度时增加RhoGDI2蛋白的表达,但增大Rapamycin的浓度,RhoGDI2蛋白的表达反而降低。低浓度LY294002组和Rapa-mycin组联合应用可以明显增加RhoGDI2蛋白的表达。结论PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路中Akt的活化与RhoGDI2密切相关,RhoGDI2可能直接或间接通过与Akt的相互作用参与调节肺癌的侵袭转移的过程。     

PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号传导通路与成人T淋巴细胞白血病关系的研究进展

成人T淋巴细胞白血病(ATL)是严重危害人类健康的一种疾病,它是由与H IV类似的逆转录病毒HTLV-I感染CD4+T细胞而诱发的恶性肿瘤。HTLV-Ⅰ导致ATL中起主要作用的是Tax蛋白,其反式激活作用占有重要地位,它可以激活PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号途径。PI3K/Akt/mTOR被认为是蛋白质合成的主要信号调节通路,研究表明该信号传导通路是与细胞增殖和细胞凋亡关系最密切的信号传导通路之一,其在成人T淋巴细胞白血病的发生、发展治疗及转归中发挥重要作用,并且已经成为治疗的新靶点。本文就PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号传导通路以及与ATL关系的研究进展作如下综述。     

PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路及临床相关肿瘤抑制剂

哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶（mTOR）和蛋白激酶B（Akt/PKB）与肿瘤发生的密切关系已被广泛地认可.mTOR是一种丝/苏氨酸激酶,可以通过影响mRNA转录、代谢、自噬等方式调控细胞的生长.它既是PI3K的效应分子,也可以是PI3K的反馈调控因子.mTORC1 和mTORC2是mTOR的两种不同复合物. 对雷帕霉素敏感的mTORC1受到营养、生长因子、能量和应激4种因素的影响.生长因子通过PI3K/Akt信号通路调控mTORC1是最具特征性调节路径.而mTORC2最为人熟知的是作为Akt473磷酸化位点的上游激酶. 同样,Akt/PKB在细胞增殖分化、迁移生长过程中发挥着重要作用. 随着Thr308和Ser473两个位点激活,Akt/PKB也得以全面活化.因此,mTORC2-Akt-mTORC1的信号通路在肿瘤形成和生长中是可以存在的.目前临床肿瘤治疗中,PI3K/Akt/mTOR是重要的靶向治疗信号通路.然而,仅抑制mTORC1活性,不是所有的肿瘤都能得到预期控制.雷帕霉素虽然能抑制mTORC1,但也能反馈性地增加PI3K信号活跃度,从而影响治疗预后.近来发现的第二代抑制剂可以同时抑制mTORC1/2和PI3K活性,这种抑制剂被认为在肿瘤治疗上颇具前景.本综述着重阐述了PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路的传导、各因子之间的相互调控以及相关抑制剂的发展.     

PI3K/Akt信号通路的调控与肿瘤血管生成

肿瘤对人类的生存危害极大,恶性肿瘤的治疗一直是世界性的难题。肿瘤血管生成是肿瘤赖以生长、转移的基础,受多种因子的调节。目前发现有多条信号网络参与调控肿瘤血管生成,PI3K/Akt是其中比较重要的一条信号传导途径,该通路与肿瘤的发生发展密切相关。本文介绍了PI3K/Akt信号通路的结构组成与活性调控,并重点阐述PI3K/Akt信号途径与肿瘤血管生成的关系。     

17β-雌二醇通过PI3K/Akt/mTOR通路抑制白介素1β诱导的大鼠椎间盘髓核细胞的凋亡

髓核细胞(nucleus pulposus cells,NPCs)的异常凋亡是导致椎间盘退变(intervertebral disc degeneration,IVDD)的主要原因。本研究组前期研究显示,17β-雌二醇(17β-estradiol,E2)能够通过PI3K/Akt信号通路抑制白介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)诱导的大鼠椎间盘NPCs凋亡。本研究旨在探讨PI3K/Akt途径的下游蛋白是否参与E2对NPCs凋亡的抑制作用。用胰蛋白酶消化法分离原代大鼠NPCs,采用E2和PI3K/Akt信号通路下游蛋白的不同抑制剂预处理后用IL-1β处理,用Annexin V/PI染色法检测凋亡率,用CCK-8法检测细胞活力,用细胞黏附试验检测NPCs与Ⅱ型胶原的黏附能力,用Western blot检测哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of Rapamycin,mTOR)、糖原合成酶激酶-3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)和核因子κB(nuclear factor kappaB,NF-κB)磷酸化水平。结果显示,E2显著抑制IL-1β诱导的NPCs凋亡,逆转由IL-1β引起的细胞活力和黏附能力的降低,抑制IL-1β对mTOR磷酸化水平的下调作用,而雷帕霉素可以阻断E2的这些保护作用。以上结果提示,E2可能通过PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路抑制IL-1β诱导的NPCs凋亡。     

白藜芦醇经PI3K/Akt/mTOR 信号通路诱导人肾癌786-O细胞自噬

白藜芦醇(resveratrol)可抑制人肾癌786-O细胞增殖,并诱导其凋亡,但是白藜芦醇对786-O细胞自噬(autophagy)的影响及机制尚不清楚。为探究其机制,体外培养786-O细胞,采用CCK-8检测786-O细胞活力;TUNEL染色检测786-O细胞凋亡;透射电子显微镜观察786-O细胞自噬体;吖啶橙染色观察786-O细胞自噬小泡;GFP-LC3质粒转染分析观察786-O细胞自噬体;Western印迹检测LC3、beclin-1、PI3K、p-PI3K、Akt、p-Akt、mTOR和p-mTOR的表达。结果显示,白藜芦醇以浓度和时间依赖性的方式抑制786-O细胞活力,并诱导细胞凋亡;与对照组相比,白藜芦醇使786-O细胞自噬增强;Western印迹结果显示,与对照组相比,白藜芦醇组LC3-II/LC3-I和Beclin-1显著增高(P0.01),表明白藜芦醇导致786-O细胞自噬体积累。与对照组相比,白藜芦醇使786-O细胞的p-PI3K/PI3K,p-Akt/Akt和p-mTOR/mTOR显著降低(P0.01),表明白藜芦醇可通过PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路增强自噬。综上所述,白藜芦醇通过抑制PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路从而诱导786-O细胞自噬。     

mTOR的研究进展

mTOR(mammaliantargetofrapamycin)是丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶,在感受营养信号、调节细胞生长与增殖中起着关键性的作用。mTOR可磷酸化p70S6K和4E-BP1,促进蛋白质合成。mTOR的活性受氨基酸尤其是亮氨酸浓度的调节,生长因子及能量水平也能通过AMPK调节mTOR活性。PI3K/Akt和Akt/TSC1-TSC2两条信号通路都可调控mTOR活性,进而调节细胞的生长与增殖。mTOR信号通路的异常会导致肿瘤的发生,可以针对mTOR研制出治疗肿瘤的靶向药物。     

低氧诱导因子-1的转录活性调控及其信号传导

低氧诱导因子-1(hypoxia-inducible factor-1,HIF-1)是氧平衡调控相关的转录因子.依赖HIF-1的基因表达调控系统广泛影响葡萄糖代谢、细胞增殖、凋亡和血管发生,与机体低氧适应、胚胎发育、各种缺血性疾病及肿瘤相关.HIF-1自身活性调节是低氧应答基因表达调控的中心环节.调控主要发生在源于Ras的两条信号途径：Ras/Raf/MEK介导的HIF-1反式激活功能调控,PI(3)K/Akt依赖的HIF-1alpha蛋白稳定性调控.这两个信号传导途径分别独立又协调地调控着HIF-1的转录活性.     

EGCG通过PI3-K/Akt信号通路诱导人甲状腺乳头状癌细胞K1增殖和凋亡的影响

研究表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)通过PI3-K/Akt信号通路对人甲状腺乳头状癌细胞K1增殖和凋亡的影响。利用MTT法研究不同剂量EGCG对K1细胞的增殖作用;采用流式细胞术分析EGCG对K1细胞周期和凋亡影响;Westernblot方法检测分析EGCG对人甲状腺乳头状癌K1细胞PI3-K、Akt/p-Akt、mTOR、cyclin D1、CDK4、Bcl-2/Bad、cleaved-caspase-3蛋白表达影响。MTT结果显示EGCG作用后K1细胞增殖显著受到抑制,且表现出明显的剂量依赖性和时间依赖性(P0.001);流式细胞术结果显示EGCG能够将K1细胞阻滞于G1期,并且产生剂量依赖性诱导K1细胞凋亡(P0.001);Westernblot结果显示EGCG能够上调K1细胞促凋亡蛋白Bad及cleaved-caspase-3的表达,下调PI3-K、mTOR、cyclin D1、CDK4蛋白表达,降低AKT蛋白磷酸化及抑凋亡蛋白Bcl-2表达(P0.05)。结果证明,EGCG能够通过PI3-K/Akt信号通路,诱导G1阻滞及细胞凋亡,抑制人甲状腺乳头状癌细胞K1增殖。     

TGF-β1通过激活Smad信号途径抑制PI3K/AKT信号介导的BMSC成脂分化

转化生长因子β1 (TGF-β1) 是参与骨髓间充质干细胞（BMSCs）脂肪定向分化的重要调节因子,其具体的调节机制尚不清楚. 本研究证明,BMSCs在体外分化为脂肪细胞的过程中, TGF-β1的基因表达显著下调,重组TGF-β1能够抑制BMSCs体外脂肪细胞定向分化,其分化的标志蛋白C/EBPβ和αP2的表达水平显著降低. TGF-β1在激活Smad信号通路的同时,还抑制胰岛素(脂肪分化的主要诱导剂)对PI3K/Akt信号通路的激活.加入Smad特异性阻断剂后,C/EBPβ和αP2的诱导表达恢复正常,同时PI3K/Akt信号通路的活化亦得以恢复. 结果提示,TGF-β1可通过Smad信号通路干扰脂肪细胞分化的核心信号通路-PI3K/Akt的活化,从而实现对BMSCs脂肪分化的抑制.该研究结果为肥胖等导致的心血管疾病或Ⅱ型糖尿病等的临床治疗提供有价值的参考.     

Identification and Characterization of Protein Kinase FA/ Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 in Clathrin-Coated Brain Vesicles

Abstract: Mg-ATP-dependent protein phosphatase activating factor [kinase F_A/glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3)] has been identified in highly purified clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) isolated from pig brain. Kinase F_A was found to exist in an inactive state but can be activated by 1% Triton X-100 or [ M /Tris-HC] extraction in brain CCVs. Activation of kinase F_A in CCVs is due to disassociation of the kinase from CCVs as demonstrated on sucrose density-gradient ultracentrifugation and Sepharose CL-4B gel filtration. Using purified brain CCVs as substrates, kinase F_A enhanced the endogenous phosphorylation of assembly protein complexes in the molecular weight range of 100,000-130,000 severalfold, as demonstrated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by autoradiography. Comparisons with well-defined brain CCV-associated endogenous protein kinases such as pp50 kinase/AP50 and casein kinase 2 provide evidence that kinase F_A/GSK-3 represents a third potent and unique CCV-associated protein kinase distinctly different from the previously described CCV protein kinases, suggesting the possible involvement of kinase FA in the regulation of CCV functions in the brain. The results also support the notion that protein kinase F_A is involved in cell surface signal transduction in the CNS.     

Potassium Channel Blockers Inhibit D2 Dopamine, but Not A1Adenosine, Receptor-Mediated Inhibition of Striatal Dopamine Release

Recent studies have identified protein tyrosine phosphorylation as a major intracellular signaling pathway. However, little is known about regulation of this signaling pathway in neuronal systems. To help identify changes in levels of protein tyrosine phosphorylation in brain, we have utilized specific anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies to detect phosphotyrosine-containing proteins by immunoblotting techniques. We have found that electroconvulsive treatment induces a selective increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of a soluble 40-kDa protein. The rise is rapid and transient, reaching maximal levels at 1-2 min and returning to basal levels by 8 min. The phosphotyrosine-containing 40-kDa protein is most prominent in hippocampus, smaller in neocortex, and not detected in brainstem or cerebellum. A phosphotyrosine-containing 42-kDa protein present in several cell types has recently been identified as a serine/threonine phosphotransferase, referred to as microtubule-associated protein 2 kinase. Comparison of the levels of tyrosine phosphorylation of the 40-kDa protein and microtubule-associated protein 2 kinase activity during column chromatography of hippocampal extracts demonstrates that the phosphotyrosine-containing 40-kDa protein and microtubule-associated protein 2 co-purify. Moreover, the tyrosine phosphorylation of the 40-kDa protein and microtubule-associated protein 2 kinase activity are increased to a similar extent following electroconvulsive treatment. These findings suggest that the phosphotyrosine-containing 40-kDa protein identified in brain is closely related to microtubule-associated protein 2 kinase.     

Sphingosine-1-phosphate stimulates aldosterone secretion through a mechanism involving the PI3K/PKB and MEK/ERK 1/2 pathways

We reported recently that sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a novel regulator of aldosterone secretion in zona glomerulosa cells of adrenal glands and that phospholipase D (PLD) is implicated in this process. We now show that S1P causes the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (PKB) and extracellularly regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK 1/2), which is an indication of their activation, in these cells. These effects are probably mediated through the interaction of S1P with the Gi protein-coupled receptors S1P1/3, as pretreatment with pertussis toxin or with the S1P1/3 antagonist VPC 23019 completely abolished the phosphorylation of these kinases. Inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) or mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) blocked S1P-stimulated aldosterone secretion. This inhibition was only partial when the cells were incubated independently with inhibitors of each pathway. However, aldosterone output was completely blocked when the cells were pretreated with LY 294002 and PD 98059 simultaneously. These inhibitors also blocked PLD activation, which indicates that this enzyme is downstream of PI3K and MEK in this system. We propose a working model for S1P in which stimulation of the PI3K/PKB and MEK/ERK pathways leads to the stimulation of PLD and aldosterone secretion.     

Endothelin Induces a Calcium-Dependent Phosphorylation of PEA-15 in Intact Astrocytes: Identification of Ser104 and Ser116 Phosphorylated, Respectively, by Protein Kinase C and Calcium/Calmodulin Kinase II In Vitro

Abstract: PEA-15 (phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes, M_r = 15,000) is an acidic serine-phosphorylated protein highly expressed in the CNS, where it can play a protective role against cytokine-induced apoptosis. PEA-15 is a major substrate for protein kinase C. Endothelins, which are known to exert pleiotropic effects on astrocytes, were used to analyze further the processes involved in PEA-15 phosphorylation. Endothelin-1 or endothelin-3 (0.1 µ M ) induced a robust phosphorylation of PEA-15 that was abolished by the removal of extracellular calcium, but only diminished by inhibitors of protein kinase C. Microsequencing of phosphopeptides generated by digestion of PEA-15 following endothelin-1 treatment identified two phosphorylated residues: Ser¹⁰⁴, previously recognized as the protein kinase C site, and a novel phosphoserine, Ser¹¹⁶, located in a consensus motif for either protein kinase casein kinase II or calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). Partly purified PEA-15 was a substrate in vitro for CaMKII, but not for casein kinase II. Two-dimensional phosphopeptide mapping demonstrated that the site phosphorylated in vitro by CaMKII was also phosphorylated in intact astrocytes in response to endothelin. CaMKII phosphorylated selectively Ser¹¹⁶ and had no effect on Ser¹⁰⁴, but in vitro phosphorylation by CaMKII appeared to facilitate further phosphorylation by protein kinase C. Treatment of intact astrocytes with okadaic acid enhanced the phosphorylation of the CaMKII site. These results demonstrate that PEA-15 is phosphorylated in astrocytes by CaMKII (or a related kinase) and by protein kinase C in response to endothelin.     

Staurosporine Activates a 60,000 Mr Protein Kinase in Bovine Chromaffin Cells That Phosphorylates Myelin Basic Protein In Vitro

Abstract: Bovine chromaffin cells contain a family of renaturable protein kinases. One of these, a 60,000 M_r kinase (PK60) that phosphorylated myelin basic protein in vitro, was activated fourfold when cells were treated with the protein kinase inhibitor Staurosporine. Because staurosporine inhibits protein kinase C, the role of this kinase in the regulation of PK60 activity was investigated. Fifty nanomolar Staurosporine produced half-maximal inhibition of protein kinase C activity in chromaffin cells, whereas ∼225 n M Staurosporine was required to induce half-maximal activation of PK60. Other protein kinase C inhibitors, H-7 and K-252a, did not mimic the effect of Staurosporine on PK60 activity. Chromaffin cells have three protein kinase C isoforms: α, ε, and ζ. Prolonged treatment with phorbol esters depleted the cells of protein kinase C α and ε, but not ζ. Neither activation nor depletion of protein kinase C affected the basal activity of PK60. Moreover, Staurosporine activated PK60 in cells depleted of protein kinase C α and e; thus, Staurosporine appeared to activate PK60 by a mechanism that does not require these protein kinase C isoforms. Incubation of cell extracts with Staurosporine in vitro did not activate PK60. Incubation of these extracts with adenosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate), however, caused a twofold activation of PK60. Although this suggests that PK60 activity is regulated by phosphorylation, the mechanism by which Staurosporine activates PK60 is not known. Staurosporine has been reported to promote neurite outgrowth from chromaffin cells. The role of PK60 in mediating the effects of Staurosporine on chromaffin cell function remains to be determined.     

Variable intron/exon structure in the oligochaete lombricine kinase gene

Lombricine kinase is an annelid enzyme that belongs to the phosphagen kinase family of which creatine kinase and arginine kinase are the typical representatives. The enzymes play important roles in the cellular energy metabolism of animals. Biochemical, physiological and molecular information with respect to lombricine kinase is limited compared to other phosphagen kinases. This study presents data on the cDNA sequences of lombricine kinase from two smaller oligochaetes, Enchytraeus sp. and Stylaria sp. The deduced amino acid sequences are analyzed and compared with other selected phosphagen kinases. The intron/exon structure of the lombricine kinase gene was determined for these two species as well as two additional oligochaetes, Lumbriculus variegatus and Tubifex tubifex, and compared with available data for annelid phosphagen kinases. The data indicate the existence of a variable organization of the proposed 8-intron/9-exon gene structure. The results provide further insights in the evolution and position of these enzymes within the phosphagen kinase family.     

Bradykinin B<Subscript>2</Subscript> receptor-mediated proliferation via activation of the Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK pathway in rat vascular smooth muscle cells

It has been suggested that bradykinin (BK) plays an important role in regulating neointimal formation after vascular injury. However, implication of BK in the growth of rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is controversial. Therefore, we examined the mitogenic effect of BK on VSMCs associated with activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Both [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation were activated by BK in time- and concentration-dependent manners. Pretreatment of these cells with neither pertussis toxin nor cholera toxin attenuated the BK-induced responses. Pretreatment of VSMCs with Hoe 140 (a selective B(2) receptor antagonist), U73122 (an inhibitor of phospholipase C), and BAPTA/AM (an intracellular Ca(2+) chelator) inhibited both [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation in response to BK. BK-induced [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and p42/p44 MAPK phosphorylation were inhibited by pretreatment of VSMCs with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (genistein and herbimycin A), protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors (staurosporine, Go-6976, and Ro-318220), an MAPK kinase inhibitor (PD98059), and a p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB203580). Overexpression of the dominant negative mutants, H-Ras-15A and Raf-N4, suppressed p42/p44 MAPK activation induced by BK and PDGF-BB, indicating that Ras and Raf may be required for activation of these kinases. From these results, we concluded that the mitogenic effect of BK is mediated through activation of the Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK pathway similar to that of PDGF-BB. BK-mediated MAPK activation was modulated by Ca(2+), PKC, and tyrosine kinase all of which are associated with cell proliferation in rat cultured VSMCs.     

Ischemia-Induced Translocation of Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II: Potential Role in Neuronal Damage

The activities of Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent, Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent, and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinases (CaM-KII, PKC, and PKA, respectively) were determined in rat brains after global ischemia. Both CaM-KII and PKC activities were significantly depressed in both hippocampal and cerebral cortical regions of ischemic animals, whereas no change was detected in PKA activity. The loss of CaM-KII activity was more dramatic and more sustained than the loss of PKC activity and correlated with the duration of ischemia. These decreases in enzyme activity were found in both supernatant and pellet fractions from crude homogenates. When the supernatant and pellet were analyzed for the amount of CaM-KII 50-kDa protein, a significant decrease was detected in supernatant fractions that paralleled a gain in the amount of CaM-KII in the pellet. Thus, the loss of CaM-KII activity in the supernatant can be explained by translocation of the enzyme to the pellet. Whether inactivation of CaM-KII occurs during or after the enzyme translocates from the supernatant to the pellet is unknown. Our results indicate that loss in CaM-KII activity parallels neuronal damage associated with ischemia; down-regulation of CaM-KII activity coincided with translocation of the enzyme to the particulate fraction, and it is proposed that this may be, in fact, a mechanism for controlling excessive CaM-KII phosphorylation.     

Sea urchin fertilization stimulates CaM kinase-II (multifunctional [type II] Ca2+/CaM kinase) activity and association with p34cdc2

Upon fertilization, the sea urchin egg synthesizes proteins which impart a Ca²⁺ dependence to M-phase onset. A potential target of this Ca²⁺ dependence may be CaM kinase-II (the multifunctional [type II] Ca²⁺/calmodulin [CaM]-dependent protein kinase) which is necessary for nuclear envelope breakdown in fertilized sea urchin eggs. This study was intended to determine whether sea urchin CaMK-II is activated after fertilization and whether it interacts with other known M-phase regulators, such as p34^cdc2. We report that total CaMK-II activity, measured by solution assays, increases after fertilization, peaking just prior to cleavage. Interestingly, total CaMK-II activity continues to fluctuate, peaking again prior to second and third cleavage. Gel assays also reveal enhanced levels of the 56 and 62 kDa potential CaMK-II phosphoproteins after fertilization. Finally, CaMK-II activity and only the 62 kDa phosphoprotein physically associate with p34^cdc2, but again only after fertilization. These changes in CaMK-II activity and p34^cdc2-association after fertilization may ensure that Ca²⁺ signals are targeted to the M-phase machinery at the appropriate developmental times.