Capitalizing on multi-element interactions through balanced nutrition - A pathway to improve nitrogen use efficiency in China, India and North America

A viable option for increasing nitrogen (N) use efficiency and mitigation of negative impacts of N on the environment is to capitalize on multi-element interactions through implementation of nutrient management programs that provide balanced nutrition. Numerous studies have demonstrated the immediate efficacy of this approach in the developing regions like China and India as well as developed countries in North America. Based on 241 site-years of experiments in these countries, the first-year N recovery efficiency (RE) for the conventional or check treatments averaged 21% while the balanced treatments averaged 54% RE, for an average increase of 33% in RE due to balanced nutrition. Effective policies to promote adoption are most likely those that enable site-specific approaches to nutrient management decisions rather than sweeping, nation-wide incentives supporting one nutrient over another. Local farmers, advisers and officials need to be empowered with tools and information to help them define necessary changes in practices to create more balanced nutrient management.     

Analysis of differences in photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency of alpine and lowland Poa species

This study investigates factors determining variation in photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (φ_N) in seven slow- and fast-growing Poa species from altitudinally contrasting sites. The species and their environmental origin were (in order of increasing relative growth rate): two alpine (Poa fawcettiae and P. costiniana), one sub-alpine (P. alpina) and three temperate lowland perennials (P. pratensis, P. compressa and P. trivialis), as well as one temperate lowland annual (P. annua). Plants were grown hydroponically under identical conditions with free access to nutrients in a growth room. Photosynthesis per unit leaf area measured at growth irradiance (500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) was slightly higher in the slow-growing alpine species. At saturating light intensities, photosynthesis was considerably higher in the alpine species than in the lowland species. Carboxylation capacity and Rubisco content per unit leaf area were also greater in the alpine species. Despite variation between the species, the in vivo specific activity of Rubisco showed little relationship to relative growth rate or photosynthetic rate. Both at light saturation and at the growth irradiance, φ_N was lowest in the slow-growing alpine species P. fawcettiae, P. costiniana and P. alpina, and highest in the fast-growing P. compressa and P. annua. The proportion of leaf nitrogen that was allocated to photosynthetic capacity and the in vivo catalytic constant of Rubisco accounted for most of the variation in φ_N at light saturation. Minor variations in intercellular CO₂ partial pressure also contributed to some extent to the variations in φ_N at light saturation. The low φ_N values at growth irradiance exhibited by the alpine species were additionally due to a lower percentage utilisation of their high photosynthetic capacity compared to the lowland species. Received: 28 May 1998 / Accepted: 28 March 1999     

Effect of shade on the growth and mineral nutrition of a C4 perennial grass under field conditions

The effect of shading by a shrub legume on the growth and nutrient uptake of a C4 tropical grass was studied during four regrowth cycles. Regrowth periods were characterised by contrasting soil water availability. Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) C. E. Hubbard swards were grown in full sun and under Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit with a light transmission level ranging from 80 to 30% of the incoming photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), depending on shrub regrowth. A treatment with high N and water supply was included in one of the cycles to quantify the effect of shade alone on potential growth.Aboveground biomass (DM) and leaf area index (LAI) of swards were not depressed by the reduction of incoming PAR. The reduction in transmitted PAR by shrubs was compensated by an increase in the radiation use efficiency (RUE) of shaded swards. Higher RUE of unfertilised, shaded stands may be explained by higher levels of N availability in the soil. This is supported by the analysis of curves relating sward N accumulation to sward DM accumulation. In fact, for similar measured biomass the accummulated N was higher in shaded stands, a consequence of their higher N concentrations. This allowed shaded leaves to improve their CO2 assimilation rates on a leaf area basis. Higher RUE reported on shaded stands may be the consequence of higher leaf CO2 assimilation rates and also possible changes in the shoot:root ratio. As with N, the amount of K taken up by the sward was higher under shade, whereas P data were higher under shade only during the driest cycle. A positive water balance, alone or in combination with high N fertilisation, eliminated the improvement of the N nutrition of shaded stands. Thus, the positive effects of shade may be only observed when N and water are limiting sward growth in the open.     

Season effects on leaf nitrogen partitioning and photosynthetic water use efficiency in mango

The key parameters of photosynthetic capacity (maximum carboxylation rate (V_cmax), electron transport capacity (J_max) and dark respiration rate (R_d)) and the slope (m) of the stomatal conductance model of Ball et al. [Progress in photosynthetic research, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1987] were measured for a whole growing season in fully expanded leaves of 12-year-old mango trees cv. Cogshall in La Réunion island. Leaf nitrogen partitioning into carboxylation (P_c) and bioenergetic (P_b) pools were computed according to the model of Niinemets and Tenhunen [Plant Cell Environ 1997;20: 845–66]. V_cmax, J_max, R_d, P_c and P_b remained relatively stable over the whole study period, with the exception of the period of linear fruit growth when J_max, R_d and P_b were slightly lower, and leaf non-structural carbohydrate content higher. During the pre-floral and floral periods, m decreased by more than 50%, indicating an increase in photosynthetic water use efficiency and m increased again during the period of linear fruit growth. Our results show that, in tropical orchard conditions characterized by mild seasonal climatic changes and non-limiting water supply, leaf nitrogen partitioning is rather stable. Our results also advocate for more studies on the effect of phenology on m and photosynthetic water use efficiency, which is of paramount importance for building coupled biochemical models of photosynthetic carbon assimilation.     

Cereal area and nitrogen use efficiency are drivers of future nitrogen fertilizer consumption

At a global scale, cereal yields and fertilizer N consumption have increased in a near-linear fashion during the past 40 years and are highly correlated with one another. However,large differences exist in historical trends of N fertilizer usage and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)among regions, countries, and crops. The reasons for these differences must be understood to estimate future N fertilizer requirements. Global nitrogen needs will depend on: (i) changes in cropped cereal area and the associated yield increases required to meet increasing cereal demand from population and income growth, and (ii) changes in NUE at the farm level. Our analysis indicates that the anticipated 38% increase in global cereal demand by 2025 can be met by a 30% increase in N use on cereals, provided that the steady decline in cereal harvest area is halted and the yield response to applied N can be increased by 20%. If losses of cereal cropping area continue at the rate of the past 20 years (-0.33% per year) and NUE cannot be increased substantially, a 60% increase in global N use on cereals would be required to meet cereal demand. Interventions to increase NUE and reduce N losses to the environment must be accomplished at the farm- or field-scale through a combination of improved technologies and carefully crafted local policies that contribute to the adoption of improved N management; uniform regional or national directives are unlikey to be effective at both sustaining yield increases and improving NUE. Examples from several countries show that increases in NUE at rates of 1% per year or more can be achieved if adequate investments are made in research and extension. Failure to arrest the decrease in cereal crop area and to improve NUE in the world's most important agricultural systems will likely cause severe damage to environmental services at local, regional, and global scales due to a large increase in reactive N load in the environment.     

Plant biodiversity in a larch plantation from the view point of photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency in northeast China

Forest floor of larch species often provides growth habitat for many kinds of understory species because of relatively sparse structure in a larch canopy. A rich flora of forest understory species may play an essential role in maintaining fertility of a larch stand. An attempt was made to evaluate photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (PNUE) of many understory and overstory species according to their Raunkiaer lifeform. By studying 72 perennial deciduous species in a larch plantation in northeast China, marked photosynthetic differences between phanerophytes (Ph) and other three lifeforms of chamaephytes (Ch), hemicryptophytes (He), and cryptophytes (Cr) were found, with marginal differences found among Ch, He, and Cr. Ph species had much lower PNUE, and much lower values of rate of nitrogen allocation to chlorophyll (Chl./N) and nitrogen allocation to carboxylation processes (V _cmax/N) were concurrently observed in Ph compared with the other three lifeforms. Ph had much lower leaf nitrogen per unit of projection area (N _area) and specific leaf area (SLA, cm² g^–1). At lower SLA, for Ph species the change of PNUE with SLA was small, but these changes became very large at higher SLA for Ch, He, and Cr species. Our findings indicate that leaf morphological change is important for clarifying photosynthesis differences among species with different lifeform.     

Cereal area and nitrogen use efficiency are drivers of future nitrogen fertilizer consumption

At a global scale, cereal yields and fertilizer N consumption have increased in a near-linear fashion during the past 40 years and are highly correlated with one another. However, large differences exist in historical trends of N fertilizer usage and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) among regions, countries, and crops. The reasons for these differences must be understood to estimate future N fertilizer requirements. Global nitrogen needs will depend on: (i) changes in cropped cereal area and the associated yield increases required to meet increasing cereal demand from population and income growth, and (ii) changes in NUE at the farm level. Our analysis indicates that the anticipated 38% increase in global cereal demand by 2025 can be met by a 30% increase in N use on cereals, provided that the steady decline in cereal harvest area is halted and the yield response to applied N can be increased by 20%. If losses of cereal cropping area continue at the rate of the past 20 years (-0.33% per year) and NUE cannot be increased substantially, a 60% increase in global N use on cereals would be required to meet cereal demand. Interventions to increase NUE and reduce N losses to the environment must be accomplished at the farm- or field-scale through a combination of improved technologies and carefully crafted local policies that contribute to the adoption of improved N management; uniform regional or national directives are unlikey to be effective at both sustaining yield increases and improving NUE. Examples from several countries show that increases in NUE at rates of 1% per year or more can be achieved if adequate investments are made in research and extension. Failure to arrest the decrease in cereal crop area and to improve NUE in the world's most important agricultural systems will likely cause severe damage to environmental services at local, regional, and global scales due to a large increase in reactive N load in the environment.     

供氮水平对爬山虎(Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch)生物量及养分分配的影响

爬山虎是典型的亚热带木本攀援植物,在垂直绿化、植被恢复和水土保持等方面的应用日益普遍,而营养元素对爬山虎生长的影响还缺乏研究,这不利于爬山虎的生长调控与合理应用。通过水培试验,对不同氮素水平(0、0.15、0.3、0.45、0.6、0.75g.L-1)条件下爬山虎幼苗生长、氮磷钾营养分配和利用状况作了研究。结果表明:供氮水平的提高能显著促进植株的生物量增加,并影响茎叶的生物量分配比例,供氮处理的叶生物量占总生物量的50%以上;供氮水平的提高能增加植株根、茎、叶的氮含量,对磷含量影响不显著,对茎叶中的钾含量有一定的稀释作用;叶片是主要的氮养分贮存器官,叶片氮累积量达到整个植株总氮累积量的60%以上;供氮水平的增加,降低了爬山虎的氮利用率,提高了磷钾的利用率。     

Effect of CaCl2 on growth performance, photosynthetic efficiency and nitrogen assimilation of Cichorium intybus L. grown under NaCl stress

Pot culture experiments were conducted to assess the extent of growth, photosynthetic efficiency and nitrogen assimilation of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) as affected by NaCl and CaCl₂ alone as well as in combination. Six treatments, i.e., 80 mM and 160 mM NaCl, 5 mM and 10 mM CaCl₂ and 80 mM + 10 mM and 160 mM + 10 mM of NaCl + CaCl₂ were given to the growing plants separately at three developmental stages, viz., the pre-flowering (30 DAS), flowering (120 DAS) and post-flowering (150 DAS) stages. Each NaCl treatment caused a significant reduction in total plant biomass, photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, total chlorophyll content, soluble protein content, NR activity and nitrogen content, although nitrate content increased. On the contrary CaCl₂ treatment gave a favorable effect, compared to the control. The effect of combined treatments was similar to that of NaCl but less in magnitude. Thus, the application of CaCl₂ may mitigate the adverse effect caused by NaCl.     

Grain yield and kernel weight of two maize genotypes differing in nitrogen use efficiency at various levels of nitrogen and carbohydrate availability during flowering and grain filling

Grain yield per plant (GYP) and mean kernel weight (KW) of maize (Zea mays L.) are sensitive to changes in the environment during the lag phase of kernel growth (the time after pollination in which the potential kernel size is determined), and during the phase of linear kernel growth. The aim of this study was to assess genotypic differences in the response to environmental stresses associated with N and/or carbohydrate shortage at different phases during plant development. The rate and timing of N and carbohydrate supply were modified by application of fertilizer, shading, and varying the plant density at sowing, at silking or at 14 d after silking. The effects of these treatments on the photosynthetic capacity, grain yield and mean kernel weight were investigated in two hybrids differing in N use efficiency. The total above-ground biomass and grain yield per plant of the efficient hybrid responded little to altered environmental conditions such as suboptimal N supply, enhanced inter-plant competition, and shading for 14 d during flowering, when compared to the less efficient genotype. We conclude that grain yields in the efficient genotype are less sensitive not only to N stress, but also to carbohydrate shortage before grain filling. Shading of N deficient plants from 14 d after silking to maturity did not significantly reduce grain yield in the non-efficient genotype, indicating complete sink limitation of grain yield during grain filling. In the efficient genotype, in contrast, grain yield of N-deficient plants was significantly reduced by shading during grain filling. The rate of photosynthesis declined with decreasing foliar N content. No genotypic differences in photosynthesis were observed at high or low foliar N contents. However, at high plant density and low N supply, the leaf chlorophyll content after flowering in the efficient genotype was higher than that in the non-efficient genotype. Obviously, the higher source capacity of the efficient genotype was not due to higher photosynthetic N use efficiency but due to maintenance of high chlorophyll contents under stressful conditions. In the efficient genotype, the harvest index was not significantly affected by N fertilization, plant density, or shading before the grain filling period. In contrast, in the non-efficient genotype the harvest index was diminished by N deficiency and shading during flowering. We conclude that the high yielding ability of the efficient genotype under stressful conditions was associated with formation of a high sink capacity of the grains under conditions of low carbohydrate and N availability during flowering and with maintenance of high source strength during grain filling under conditions of high plant density and low N availability.     

楝树籽提取物对土壤供氮和氮肥利用率的影响

研究了楝树籽不同方式的提取物（NI,NⅡ）对普通铁质淋溶土壤,简有水耕人为土壤供N和N肥利用率的影响。NI可在一定程度上抑制两种土壤产生NO3－N,NⅡ在两种土壤上前期均能显著固定NH4^ -N并在后期释放出NH4^ -N。如果NI和NⅡ2种提取物同时与化肥N施入土壤,则可明显改善土壤的供N状况,使这与作物需N过程更吻合。盆栽实验证明,NⅡ可显著提高肥旱耕人为土壤上作物对N肥的利用率。     

Carbon and nitrogen economy of four Triticum aestivum cultivars differing in relative growth rate and water use efficiency

We investigated physiological and morphological traits underlying variation in relative growth rate (KGR) among wheat cultivars. Subsequently, we determined whether higher RGR is correlated with higher water demand and lower plant water use efficiency (WUE_p). Further, the correlation between water use efficiency and leaf nitrogen concentration was examined. For this purpose we chose lour cultivars contrasting in RGR or WUE_p. Gas exchange of shoots and respiration of roots were measured on intact plants over a 24 h period, and total carbon and nitrogen concentrations of all plant parts were determined. The highest RGR was achieved by the cultivars with the highest leaf area ratio. WUE_p was strongly dependent on photosynthetic water use efficiency and was highest for the cultivars with the highest rate of photosynthesis, which achieved higher rates of photosynthesis per unit leaf nitrogen. We found no evidence for a functional or genetic link between the physiological traits underlying differences in RGR (specific leaf area and leaf area ratio) and those causing variation in water use efficiency (photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate). These results indicate that, in wheat, it may be possible to select simultaneously for traits associated with a high WUE_p and a high RGR.     

Identification of quantitative trait loci for nitrogen use efficiency in maize

Intensively managed crop systems are normally dependent on nitrogen input to maximize yield potential. Improvements in nitrogen- use efficiency (NUE) in crop plants may support the development of cropping systems that are more economically efficient and environment friendly. The objective of this study was to map and characterize quantitative trait loci (QTL) for NUE in a maize population. In preliminary experiments, inbred lines contrasting for NUE were identified and were used to generate populations of F2:3 families for genetic study. A total of 214 F2:3 families were evaluated in replicated trials under high nitrogen (280 kg/ha) and low nitrogen (30 kg/ha) conditions in 1996 and 1997. Analysis of ear-leaf area, plant height, grain yield, ears per plant, kernels number per ear, and kernel weight indicated significant genetic variation among F2:3 families. The heritability of these traits was found to be high (h2=0.57–0.81). The mapping population were genotyped using a set of 99 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers. A linkage map of these markers was developed and used to identify QTL. Between two and six loci were found to be associated with each trait. The correspondence of several genomic regions with traits measured under nitrogen limited conditions suggests the presence of QTL associated with NUE. QTLs will help breeders to improve their maize ideotype of a low-nitrogen efficiency by identifying those constitutive and adaptive traits involved in the expression of traits significantly correlated with yield, such as ear leaf area and number of ears per plant. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Growth, gas exchange and water use efficiency of the facultative hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor associated with hosts differing in foliar nitrogen concentration

The facultative hemiparasitic angiosperm Rhinanthus minor was grown on 11 different host species, and in the absence of a host. The height of R. minor parasitising the legume Trifolium pratense exceeded that of unattached plants by more than an order of magnitude, with performance on grasses and non-legume dicotlyedonous hosts between these two extremes. Light saturated rates of photosynthesis in R. minor on different hosts ranged from 1. 5 to 22. 5 μmol g⁻¹ dry weight min⁻¹, and were positively correlated with growth. Foliar nitrogen concentrations in the parasite exceeded those of the hosts. The former were positively related to light saturated rates of photosynthesis, and inversely related to photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency. There was no relationship between leaf nitrogen concentration and water use efficiency in R. minor. The data are discussed in relation to studies of nitrogen and water use in mistletoes.     

不同灌水模式对冬小麦籽粒产量和水、氮利用效率的影响

在田间试验条件下,以冬小麦品种泰农18为材料,设置灌底墒水(CK)、底墒水+拔节水(W1)、底墒水+拔节水+越冬水与灌浆水交替灌溉(越冬/灌浆水交替灌溉模式,W2)、底墒水+拔节水+开花水(优化传统灌溉模式,W3)、底墒水+越冬水+拔节水+灌浆水(传统灌溉模式,W4)5种灌溉模式,每处理每次灌水量均为600 m3·hm-2,研究了山东泰安偏旱年份(2009-2010年)不同灌溉模式对小麦籽粒产量、水分利用效率和氮素利用效率的影响.结果表明:在小麦全生育期119.7 mm降水量条件下,越冬/灌浆水交替灌溉模式(W2)与传统灌溉模式(W4)籽粒产量差异不显著,但水分利用效率显著高于传统灌溉模式,与灌水量相同的优化传统灌溉模式(W3)相比,其小麦籽粒产量明显提高,水分利用效率无显著差异;越冬/灌浆水交替灌溉模式和传统灌溉模式的氮肥偏生产力最高,且籽粒收获后越冬/灌浆水交替灌溉模式在0 ～100 cm土层的硝态氮积累量显著高于传统灌溉模式和优化传统灌溉模式,降低了硝态氮的淋溶损失.在本试验条件下,越冬/灌浆水交替灌溉模式(W2)是可以兼顾小麦籽粒产量、水分利用效率和氮素利用效率的最佳灌溉模式.     

开放式空气CO2浓度增高对水稻N素吸收利用的影响

在大田栽培条件下 ,研究空气中CO2 浓度增高 (FACE) 2 0 0 μmol·mol-1对水稻N素吸收及其利用效率的影响 .结果表明 ,FACE处理使水稻不同生育时期的植株含N率显著下降 ;由于干物质生产量显著增大 ,FACE处理使水稻不同生育时期的N素累积量有所提高 ,但无显著影响 ;FACE处理能够显著提高移栽后 2 8d、抽穗期以及成熟期单位N素的干物质生产效率、单位N素的籽粒生产效率和显著提高水稻的N素收获指数 .高N处理的植株含N率、N素累积量均有所增加 ,但使N素生产效率呈现下降趋势 .     

Sensitivity of stomata and water use efficiency to high CO2

Abstract The observed responses of stomata to carbon dioxide are reviewed, and the interaction of other known factors on the sensitivity to CO₂ are summarized. The role of stomatal response to CO₂ is discussed, and it is argued that while the effect of the CO₂ response in normal daily stomatal behaviour is presently poorly understood the stomatal response to CO₂ will have major impact in improving water use efficiency in future CO₂ atmospheres. However, the attenuation of this increase is emphasized so that increases at the crop level will probably be much smaller than those observed at the single leaf assimilation level.     

Effects of foliar application of nitrogen on the photosynthetic performance and growth of two fescue cultivars under heat stress

The effects of nitrogen fertilization on the growth, photosynthetic pigment contents, gas exchange, and chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence parameters in two tall fescue cultivars (Festuca arundinacea cv. Barlexas and Crossfire II) were investigated under heat stress at 38/30 °C (day/night) for two weeks. Shoot growth rate of two tall fescue cultivars declined significantly under heat stress, and N supply can improved the growth rates, especially for the Barlexas. Chl content, leaf net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, water use efficiency, and the maximal efficiency of photosystem 2 photochemistry (F_v/F_m) also decreased less under heat stress by N supply, especially in Crossfire II. Moreover, cultivar variations in photosynthetic performance were associated with their different response to heat stress and nitrogen fertilization, which were evidenced by shoot growth rate and photosynthetic pigment contents.