Seasonal Variation in Polyspecific Associations Among Callimico goeldii, Saguinus labiatus, and S. fuscicollis in Acre, Brazil

Polyspecific associations (PSA) occur when 2 or more species maintain proximity or coordinate activities. PSA may provide ecological benefits similar to those of monospecific groups, i.e., protection against predation and improved foraging efficiency, but may also impart costs, such as feeding competition. I studied 3 New World Callitrichidae—Callimico goeldii, Saguinus fuscicollis, and S. labiatus—in northwestern Brazil over 18 mo between April 1999 and August 2003, during which single primary study groups of C. goeldii, S. labiatus, and S. fuscicollis consistently associated with one another. I compared patterns of PSA participation to variation in plant diets during wet and dry seasons. All 3 species associated an average 61% of observation time, but with significant seasonal variation in PSA. During the dry season, April–September, PSA occurred significantly less frequently than during the wet season, October–March (37% vs. 88%). The variation in PSA corresponded with seasonal shifts in plant food diets, resulting in less dietary overlap among all 3 species during the dry season, particularly between Callimico goeldii and Saguinus labiatus. Dietary richness, diversity, and evenness were also lower in the dry compared to the wet season for each species. The results suggest a link between PSA participation and diet among the taxa; foraging-related costs or feeding competition may constrain PSA during the dry season.     

Resource availability and distribution patterns, indicators of competition between Macrotermes bellicosus and other macro-detritivores in the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire

Interspecific competition has rarely been demonstrated in field studies. For it to occur a resource must be in limited supply and potential competitors must be concurrently active in time and space. We studied the availability of plant litter during the course of the year and the activity and distribution of macro‐detritivores (termites, diplopods and earthworms) in two habitats in a Guinea savanna (Côte d'Ivoire), to test whether interspecific competition might be important. Plant litter was limited during the rainy season in the savanna, but was never limited in the gallery forest. The termite Macrotermes bellicosus, the dominant macro‐detritivore in this area, and other detritivorous termites (e.g. Microtermes spp., Ancistrotermes spp., Odontotermes spp.) were active all year round with a peak during the rainy season, when diplopods and earthworms were also active. In the savanna at the beginning of the rainy season when food became limiting, other detritivorous termite species were more active in the absence of M. bellicosus than in its presence. This complementary activity pattern of M. bellicosus and other termites indicates that interspecific competition among detritivorous termites may be occurring. However, the spatio‐temporal distribution of diplopods and earthworms suggests that interspecific competition with M. bellicosus is of minor importance.     

Habitat‐dependent occupancy and movement in a migrant songbird highlights the importance of mangroves and forested lagoons in Panama and Colombia

Climate change is predicted to impact tropical mangrove forests due to decreased rainfall, sea‐level rise, and increased seasonality of flooding. Such changes are likely to influence habitat quality for migratory songbirds occupying mangrove wetlands during the tropical dry season. Overwintering habitat quality is known to be associated with fitness in migratory songbirds, yet studies have focused primarily on territorial species. Little is known about the ecology of nonterritorial species that may display more complex movement patterns within and among habitats of differing quality. In this study, we assess within‐season survival and movement at two spatio‐temporal scales of a nonterritorial overwintering bird, the prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea), that depends on mangroves and tropical lowland forests. Specifically, we (a) estimated within‐patch survival and persistence over a six‐week period using radio‐tagged birds in central Panama and (b) modeled abundance and occupancy dynamics at survey points throughout eastern Panama and northern Colombia as the dry season progressed. We found that site persistence was highest in mangroves; however, the probability of survival did not differ among habitats. The probability of warbler occupancy increased with canopy cover, and wet habitats were least likely to experience local extinction as the dry season progressed. We also found that warbler abundance is highest in forests with the tallest canopies. This study is one of the first to demonstrate habitat‐dependent occupancy and movement in a nonterritorial overwintering migrant songbird, and our findings highlight the need to conserve intact, mature mangrove, and lowland forests.     

Relative roles of termites and saprotrophic microbes as drivers of wood decay: A wood block test

Deadwood in tropical ecosystems represents an important but poorly studied carbon (C) pool. Biologically mediated decay of this pool occurs by both saprotrophic microbes and macro‐invertebrates, such as termites. The activity of these decay agents is influenced by abiotic conditions, especially water availability in tropical systems. While saprotrophic microbial activity is directly controlled by moisture, termites employ various morphological and behavioural modifications that should allow for continued activity in dry conditions. We therefore hypothesized that the relative role of termites would be enhanced in the dry season and a dry compared to a wet site. We deployed a novel wood bait (Pinus radiata) at two sites (rainforest and savanna), with or without access holes cut into termite‐excluding mesh. Mass loss from wood baits was measured after a dry season and after a full dry/wet annual cycle. Mass loss was higher at the rainforest site, demonstrating the overall role of moisture in driving wood decay. Counter to expectations, we found no evidence that the relative role of termites was higher at the dry site, nor during the dry season. However, the prevalence of termites was higher in the savanna compared to the rainforest. While termites clearly impact wood decay, these findings indicate that the relative importance of termites in the fate of deadwood may not reflect their mere presence within and across ecosystems. If moisture availability shifts under climate change, our results suggest similar functional responses between termites and saprotrophic microbes in driving C loss from deadwood.     

Survival of the Orange-tufted Sunbird,Nectarinia osea

Cape Sugarbirds are southern African endemics, found in fynbos vegetation of the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa, and they feed almost exclusively on the nectar of Protea inflorescences. Breeding male Sugarbirds are highly territorial and defend resources for themselves, their mates and their offspring. Sugarbirds, however, often leave their breeding territories in search of food during the dry season and return to the same breeding sites each year, thus experiencing an annual cycle of movement from one food source to another. Male territory size as well as breeding success, were determined over two breeding seasons for a population in the Helderberg Nature Reserve in the Western Cape Province. Sugarbird fledgling success was significantly greater for males defending large territories. Males moved or increased the size of their territories between seasons, possibly to improve breeding success, but no changes in territory size were observed during the breeding season.     

Litter production and seasonality of mangroves in Papua New Guinea

Productivity, as measured by litter trapping, of a mangrove dominated by Rhizophora stylosa Griff. at Motupore Island (lat. 9° 31′34′?S; long. 147° 17$\text{\$}\text{?}$02‘ E) was 1430 g dry weight m^?2 year^?1. This is a high figure when compared with other studied mangrove sites. Phenological data were obtained for R. stylosa, R. apiculata Blume and Sonneratia alba Smith. All species have a major leaf fall in the wet season. Flowering in both Rhizophora species is greatest during the wet season, but S. alba peaks during the dry season. Leaf emergence data were only available for R. stylosa and these appeared to be trimodal. Correlations were calculated for each component with rainfall, wind run, maximum temperature and minimum temperature. Some significant correlations were obtained with rainfall and maximum temperature. These correlations are discussed and it is suggested that the seasonality of mangrove phenologies needs to be considered in terms of whole tree physiology rather than isolated environmental factors.     

Seasonal influence on reproduction in chimpanzees of gombe national park

Although wild chimpanzees are not seasonal breeders, there are seasonal effects on several aspects of chimpanzee reproduction. I examined the seasonal incidence of anogenital swelling in cyclic, pregnant, and acyclic female chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, May 1975–April 1992, and surveyed important reproductive events to determine whether there is a seasonal effect. I analyzed data by season (wet vs. dry) and seasonal quarter;early dry season = May–July;late dry = August–October;early wet = November–January;late wet = February–April. When data for the 17 years are combined, the percentage of females in each reproductive state remains consistent throughout the year. In a given month, 30–35% of subjects were in the cyclic category, 11–15% were pregnant, and 54–61% were acyclic. Cyclic females showed full swelling more often during the late dry season. Pregnant females exhibited anogenital swelling more often during the late dry and early wet seasons. Acyclic females also exhibited a seasonal effect with more anogenital swelling during the late dry season. There is no seasonal difference in frequency of live births (dry, 20;wet, 23). However, the timing of conception showed a seasonal effect (dry, 32;wet, 16). Consistent with earlier reports, the onset of postpartum cycles is highly seasonal;30 occurred during dry season, 9 during wet season. The occurrence of first full swellings for young females is also concentrated in the late dry season. It appears that the dry season is a time of great change for Gombe chimpanzee reproductive physiology. Previous studies indicated that seasonal changes in food availability play a role in increasing group size during the dry season and social contact between females can enhance cyclicity. Accordingly, I suggest that seasonal changes in diet may play a role, either directly (food content) or indirectly (social contact), to alter reproductive physiology.     

Diet and habitat use of frillneck lizards in a seasonal tropical environment

A population of frillneck lizards, Chlamydosaurus kingii, was monitored by mark-recapture and telemetry over a 2 year period in Kakadu National Park. The aims of the study were to document changes in diet, growth, condition and habitat use between the wet and dry seasons of northern Australia, in light of recent research examining seasonal variation in the physiology of this species. Frillneck lizards feed on a diverse range of invertebrates in both seasons, even though there is a substantial reduction in food avail-ability in the dry season. Harvester termites from the genus Drepanotermes constitute a major component of the diet, and the prevalence of termites in the diet of sedentary foragers in a tropical environment is unusual. Adult male body condition remained relatively stable throughout the year, but females experienced considerable variation. These differences are attributed to different reproductive roles of the sexes. Growth in C. kingii was restricted to the wet season, when food availability was high, and growth was minimal in the dry season when food availability was low. The method used in catching lizards was an important factor in determining seasonal habitat use. Telemetered lizards selected a significantly different distribution of tree species than was randomly available, and they selected significantly larger tree species during the dry season. Lizards spotted along roadsides showed little seasonal variation in the selection of tree species or tree sizes. The results suggest a comprehensive change in the ecology of this species, in response to an annual cycle of low food and moisture availability, followed by a period with few resource restrictions.     

渭河丰、枯水期底栖动物群落特征及综合健康评价

以渭河为研究范例,分别于丰水期(2011年10月)和枯水期(2012年4月)对渭河全流域范围内45个样点的底栖动物群落进行跟踪调查,并在此基础上应用丰、枯水期底栖动物生物完整性评价指数(B-IBI)对渭河流域水生态系统进行综合健康评价。结果表明,渭河流域底栖动物群落结构具有明显的空间异质性,枯水期底栖动物群落结构单一,物种数量、生物量和香农多样性明显少于丰水期,但单位密度差异不显著。综合健康评价结果表明,渭河上游、洛河中上游地区的健康状况较好,而渭河中下游、泾河全流域及洛河下游地区的健康状况较差。相关分析显示,渭河全流域范围内丰水期和枯水期底栖动物群落的B-IBI得分呈现明显的正相关性,表明在不同水文过程时期,渭河全流域大尺度范围内底栖动物群落的生物完整性特征较为一致。在河流丰、枯水期,底栖动物群落结构的变化趋势并对比分析了渭河流域不同区域水生态系统健康水平差异的原因。     

Effect of Seasonality on the Behavior of an Insectivorous Primate, Tarsius spectrum

The distribution and quality of food resources is generally recognized as the preeminent factor explaining much interspecific and intraspecific variation in the behavior of nonhuman primates. Primates that live in seasonal environments often show predictable responses to fluctuating resources. In order to compensate for the reduction in resource availability, primates variously switch to alternative, poorer quality food sources, increase the amount of time they spend foraging, or increase their daily path length. Some primate species reduce their group size or maximize the group dispersion. I address whether spectral tarsiers (Tarsius spectrum), which are insectivores, modify their behavior in the same ways as frugivores and folivores in response to seasonal or scarce resources. My results indicate that wild spectral tarsiers modify their activity budget in response to seasonal resources. Specifically, during periods of low resource availability, spectral tarsier males and females spent more time traveling and foraging compared to their activity budget during the wet season. Males and females not only increased the amount of time they spent foraging during times of low resource abundance but also modified their foraging behavior. During the wet season, when resource abundance was high, they consumed Orthoptera and Lepidoptera with greater frequency than during the dry season. During the dry season, when resource abundance was low, spectral tarsiers still ate numerous Orthoptera and Lepidoptera, but they also increased consumption of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Spectral tarsiers were also more likely to be involved in territorial disputes during the dry season than during the wet season. Intragroup encounters decreased in frequency in the dry season versus the frequency of encounters during the wet season.     

Histone modifications associated with drought tolerance in the desert plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zygophyllum dumosum</Emphasis> Boiss

Zygophyllum dumosum Boiss. is a perennial Saharo-Arabian phytogeographical element and a dominant shrub on the rocky limestone southeast-facing slopes of the Negev desert. The plant is highly active during the winter, and semideciduous during the dry summer, i.e., it sheds its leaflets, while leaving the thick, fleshy petiole green and rather active during the dry season. Being resistant to extreme perennial drought, Z. dumosum appears to provide an intriguing model plant for studying epigenetic mechanisms associated with drought tolerance in natural habitats. The transition from the wet to the dry season was accompanied by a significant decrease in nuclear size and with posttranslational modifications of histone H3 N-terminal tail. Dimethylation of H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4)—a modification associated with active gene expression—was found to be high during the wet season but gradually diminished on progression to the dry season. Unexpectedly, H3K9 di- and trimethylation as well as H3K27 di- and trimethylation could not be detected in Z. dumosum; H3K9 monomethylation appears to be prominent in Z. dumosum during the wet but not during the dry season. Contrary to Z. dumosum, H3K9 dimethylation was detected in other desert plants, including Artemisia sieberi, Anabasis articulata and Haloxylon scoparium. Taken together, our results demonstrate dynamic genome organization and unique pattern of histone H3 methylation displayed by Z. dumosum, which could have an adaptive value in variable environments of the Negev desert.     

Effects of diking on the biological performance of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinans L.) in an Atlantic mangrove forest

The effects of diking on the photosynthetic rate, gross glucose production, biomass, and nutrient levels of the black mangrove Avicennia germinans L., were investigated during the major dry, the major wet and the intermediate season in completely diked mangrove areas, and compared to partially diked and non-diked biotopes. In the major dry and major wet seasons, the photosynthetic rate and gross glucose production were two to five times lower in the completely diked sites compared to the partially diked and non-diked habitats. The average dry weights of branches, flowers and leaves did not differ significantly between sites. The same held true for propagules from the major dry and major wet season. However, propagules from the transition period collected in the non-diked and partially diked biotopes yielded appreciable amounts of dry matter, while plants in the completely diked forests did not carry any propagules. No statistically significant differences were found among nutrient content in the leaves of plants from the different habitats. Our results suggest black mangrove growing in diked habitats may suffer a certain degree of environmental stress, which may affect important biological processes, such as photosynthesis, gross glucose production, and propagule formation.     

Parallel evolution of termite‐egg mimicry by sclerotium‐forming fungi in distant termite groups

Among the great diversity of insect–fungus associations, fungal mimicry of termite eggs is a particularly fascinating consequence of evolution. Along with their eggs, Reticulitermes termites often harbour sclerotia of the fungus Fibularhizoctonia sp., called ‘termite balls’, giving the fungus competitor‐free habitat within termite nests. The fungus has evolved sophisticated morphological and chemical camouflage to mimic termite eggs. To date, this striking insect–fungus association has been found in eight temperate termite species, but is restricted to the lower termite genera Reticulitermes and Coptotermes. Here, we report the discovery of a novel type of termite ball (‘Z‐type’) in the subtropical termite, Nasutitermes takasagoensis. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Z‐type termite ball is an undescribed Trechisporoid fungus, Trechispora sp., that is phylogenetically distant from Fibularhizoctonia, indicating two independent origins of termite‐egg mimicry in sclerotium‐forming fungi. Egg protection bioassays using dummy eggs revealed that Reticulitermes speratus and N. takasagoensis differ in egg‐size preference. A comparative study of termite ball size and egg‐size preference of host termites showed that both fungi evolved a termite ball size that optimized the acceptance of termite balls as a unit investment. Termite‐egg mimicry by these fungi offers a model case of parallel evolution. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100 , 531–537.     

Phylogenetic and functional underdispersion in Neotropical phyllostomid bat communities

Habitat conversion creates a mosaic of land cover types, which affect the spatial distribution, diversity, and abundance of resources. We used abundance, functional, and phylogenetic information to determine if Neotropical bat communities exhibited phylogenetic or functional overdispersion or underdispersion in response to habitat conversion. Overdispersion suggests the operation of intraclade competition, niche partitioning, limiting similarity, or character displacement, whereas underdispersion indicates the operation of interclade competition, abiotic filtering, or biotic filtering. We expected (1) biotic filtering in landscapes with extensive forest loss to result in underdispersion; (2) niche partitioning in heterogeneous landscapes with intermediate forest loss to result in overdispersion; and (3) intraclade competition during times of low resource abundance (i.e., dry season) to increase, resulting in overdispersion. Most bat communities exhibited phylogenetic or functional underdispersion; none exhibited overdispersion. Expectations were not met: underdispersion did not increase with forest loss, heterogeneous landscapes did not induce overdispersion, and no evidence supported the contention that intraclade competition changed with season. Empirical responses were season‐specific, likely because resource availability may affect relationships between forest cover and underdispersion and between biodiversity and underdispersion. During the dry season, only high diversity sites exhibited underdispersion (i.e., functional or phylogenetic redundancy), whereas underdispersion occurred in low, intermediate, or high diversity communities during the wet season; we suggest that this difference likely arises due to changes in resource abundance. Communities with high diversity and redundancy occupied heterogeneous sites during the dry season, but communities with high redundancy were restricted to large forest reserves during the wet season.     

Territory defense by the ant Azteca trigona: maintenance of an arboreal ant mosaic

Mosaics of exclusive foraging territories, produced by intra-and interspecific competition, are commonly reported from arboreal ant communities throughout the tropics and appear to represent a recurring feature of community organization. This paper documents an ant mosaic within mangrove forests of Panama and examines the behavioral mechanisms by which one of the common species, Azteca trigona, maintains its territories. Most of the mangrove canopy is occupied by mutually exclusive territories of the ants A. trigona, A. velox, A. instabilis, and Crematogaster brevispinosa. When foraging workers of A. trigona detect workers of these territorial species, they organize an alarm recruitment response using pheromonal and tactile displays. Nestmates are attracted over short distances by an alarm pheromone originating in the pygidial gland and over longer distances by a trail pheromone produced by the Pavan's gland. Recruits are simultaneously alerted by a tactile display. No evidence was found for chemical marking of the territory. Major workers are proportionally more abundant at territory borders than on foraging trails in the interior of the colony. The mechanisms of territory defense in A. trigona are remarkably similar to those of ecologically analogous ants in the Old World tropics.     

Effects of tunnel structures of two termite species on territorial competition and territory size

The foraging territories of 2 subterranean termites, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), were simulated using a model to explore how territorial intraspecific competition changes with 4 variables characterizing the formation of territory: the number of primary tunnels, N₀; the branching probability, P_branch; the number of territories, N; and the blocking probability, P_block. The blocking probability P_block quantitatively describes the probability that a tunnel will be terminated when another tunnel is encountered; higher P_block values indicate more likely termination. Higher tunnel-tunnel encounters led to denser tunnel networks. We defined a territory as a convex polygon containing a tunnel pattern and explored the effects of competition among termite colonies on territory size distribution at steady state attained after sufficient simulation time. At the beginning of the simulation, N = 10, 20,…, 100 initial territory seeds were randomly distributed within a square area. In our previous study, we introduced an interference coefficient γ to characterize territorial competition. Higher γ values imply higher limitations on network growth. We theoretically derived γ as a function of P_block and N. In this study, we considered the constants in γ as functions of N₀ and P_branch so as to quantitatively examine the effect of tunnel structure on territorial competition. By applying statistical regression to the simulation data, we determined the generalized γ functions for both species. Under competitive conditions, territory size is most strongly affected by N₀, while the outcome of territorial competition is most strongly affected by N, followed by P_block and N₀.     

Seasonal population and individual niche dynamics in a tetra fish in the Pantanal wetlands

In seasonal tropical regions, rainfall and/or temporary floods during the wet season generally increase the abundance and diversity of food resources to many consumers as compared to the dry season. Therefore, seasonality can affect intraspecific competition and ecological opportunity, which are two important ecological mechanisms underlying population and individual niche variations. Here, we took advantage of the strong seasonality in the Pantanal wetlands to investigate how within‐ and between‐individual diet variations relate to seasonal population niche dynamics of the tetra fish Astyanax lacustris. We quantified dietary niche using gut contents and stable isotopes. Tetras had higher gut fullness and better body condition in the wet season, suggesting that competition is more intense in the dry season. The population niche was broader in the wet season due to an increase in diet divergence between individuals, in spite of potential stronger competition in the dry season. We posit that low ecological opportunity in the dry season limits the diversifying effect of intraspecific competition, constraining population niche expansion. Our results add new insights on how seasonality affects population and individual diets, indicating that intraspecific competition and ecological opportunity interact to determine temporal niche variations in seasonal environments.     

Temporal variation in diets and trophic partitioning by coexisting lizards (Ctenotus: Scincidae) in central Australia

Summary The diets of five syntopic species of Ctenotus were examined over a two-year period on a 60 ha spinifex grassland site in central Australia. The aims of the study were to test predictions that termites were an important part of the food web for syntopic Ctenotus in spinifex grasslands, and to examine seasonal changes in prey use and dietary overlap between the species. Environmental conditions during the first season of the study were dry resulting in generally low invertebrate abundance. In contrast the second season was relatively moist and overall invertebrate abundance was higher than in the first season. Diets of five species of Ctenotus contained a range of terrestrial prey although one species (C. pantherinus) was relatively termite-specialized at all times. Dietary overlap at the ordinal level between the species was generally higher during dry periods when prey abundance was low, and higher for species-pairs that were similar in body size. During the driest period of the study most species of Ctenotus ate a high proportion of termite prey which accounted for the high dietary overlap. However, each species of Ctenotus consumed different genera or foraging guilds of termites. The results suggest that most of these lizards were opportunistic in their selection of prey but that during dry periods when prey are scarce, termites may play a significant role in supporting a high -diversity of Ctenotus.     

Simulation study of territory size distributions in subterranean termites

In this study, on the basis of empirical data, we have simulated the foraging tunnel patterns of two subterranean termites, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), using a two-dimensional model. We have defined a territory as a convex polygon containing a tunnel pattern and explored the effects of competition among termite territory colonies on the territory size distribution in the steady state that was attained after a sufficient simulation time. In the model, territorial competition was characterized by a blocking probability P_block that quantitatively describes the ease with which a tunnel stops its advancement when it meets another tunnel; higher P_block values imply easier termination. In the beginning of the simulation run, N=10, 20,…,100 territory seeds, representing the founding pair, were randomly distributed on a square area. When the territory density was less (N=20), the differences in the territory size distributions for different P_block values were small because the territories had sufficient space to grow without strong competitions. Further, when the territory density was higher (N>20), the territory sizes increased in accordance with the combinational effect of P_block and N. In order to understand these effects better, we introduced an interference coefficient γ. We mathematically derived γ as a function of P_block and N: γ(N,P_block)=a(N)P_block/(P_block+b(N)). a(N) and b(N) are functions of N/(N+c) and d/(N+c), respectively, and c and d are constants characterizing territorial competition. The γ function is applicable to characterize the territoriality of various species and increases with both the P_block values and N; higher γ values imply higher limitations of the network growth. We used the γ function, fitted the simulation results, and determined the c and d values. In addition, we have briefly discussed the predictability of the present model by comparing it with our previous lattice model that had been used to explain the territory size distributions of mangrove termites on the Atlantic coast of Panama.     

Population status and structure of mountain nyala in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

The study on the population status and structure of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) was carried out in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia during the wet and dry seasons of 2000/2001. Total counts were carried out in an area of 13.1 km². The count ranged between 682 and 732 individuals. Females comprised 62.9% while males 27.4%. The calf ratio was 9.7%. The group structure of the animals varied with season. Large herds were frequently observed during the wet season and smaller groups during the dry season. Group size changed seasonally. In both seasons, 7–12 individuals were the frequent group size formation. The maximum group (62) was observed during the wet season. The population trend of the animal from 1975 to 1990 indicated a recovery and increase. But between 1990 and 1995 the population showed a continuous and steep decline. However, between 1995 and 2000 the population trend showed a better condition when compared with the previous years.