Morphology and Photosynthetic Efficiency of Tobacco Leaves That Received End-of-Day Red and Far Red Light during Development

Shaded leaves in plant canopies receive a higher proportion of far red relative to red light than is received by unshaded leaves. Brief end-of-day irradiations with red or far red light, acting through the phytochrome system, reversibly control morphological development of tobacco plants. Leaves that received far red light for 5 minutes at the end of each day during development were longer and narrower than those that received end-of-day red light. The far red treated leaves weighed less, had fewer stomata, and had less chlorophyll per unit area of leaf. Net CO₂ assimilation rates did not differ significantly between red- and far red-treated leaves on an area basis; however, the far red-treated leaves assimilated significantly more CO₂ on a leaf weight basis.     

Far-Red Light Reflection from Green Leaves and Effects on Phytochrome-Mediated Assimilate Partitioning under Field Conditions

The influence of plant spacing and row orientation on spectral distribution of light received by growing soybean (Gylcine max [L.] Merr.) plants was measured under field conditions. Light absorption, reflection and transmission of individual leaves showed that most of the blue and red was absorbed while most of the far-red was either reflected or transmitted. Plants growing in the field received different ratios of far-red relative to red, depending on nearness and/or orientation of other vegetation. Plants grown in close-spaced rows, or high population densities, received higher far-red/red ratios than did those grown in wide rows, or sparse populations. Heliotropic movements of the leaves also contributed to the far-red reflection patterns associated with row orientation. Under field conditions, differences in far-red/red ratios associated with nearness of competing vegetation became more pronounced with low solar angle near the end of the day. Plants exposed to far-red for 5 minutes at the end of each day in controlled environments, and those grown in close-spaced rows in the field, developed longer internodes and fewer branches. Red, far-red photoreversibility in the controlled environment study indicated involvement of phytochrome. Dry matter partitioning among plant components in the field was related to far-red/red light ratio received during growth and development.     

Stomatal Responses to Light and Drought Stress in Variegated Leaves of Hedera helix

Direct and indirect mechanisms underlying the light response of stomata were studied in variegated leaves of the juvenile phase of Hedera helix L. Dose response curves of leaf conductance were measured with blue and red light in leaves kept in normal or in an inverted position. In the green portions of the leaves, the sensitivity to blue light was nearly 100 times higher than that to red light. No response to red light was observed in the white portions of the leaves up to 90 micromoles per square meter per second. Red light indirectly affected leaf conductance while blue light had a direct effect. Leaf conductance was found to be more sensitive to drought stress and showed a more persistent aftereffect in the white portions of the leaves. A differential effect of drought stress on the responses to blue and red light was also observed.     

Light Quality Regulates Lateral Root Development in Tobacco Seedlings by Shifting Auxin Distributions

Light is an important environmental regulator of diverse growth and developmental processes in plants. However, the mechanisms by which light quality regulates root growth are poorly understood. We analyzed lateral root (LR) growth of tobacco seedlings in response to three kinds of light qualities (red, white, and blue). Primary (1°) LR number and secondary (2°) LR density were elevated under red light (on days 9 and 12 of treatment) in comparison with white and blue lights. Higher IAA concentrations measured in roots and lower in leaves of plants treated with red light suggest that red light accelerated auxin transport from the leaves to roots (in comparison with other light qualities). Corroborative evidence for this suggestion was provided by elevated DR5::GUS expression levels at the shoot/root junction and in the 2° LR region. Applications of N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) to red light-treated seedlings reduced both 1° LR number and 2° LR density to levels similar to those measured under white light; DR5::GUS expression levels were also similar between these light qualities after NPA application. Results were similar following exogenous auxin (NAA) application to blue light-treated seedlings. Direct [³H]IAA transport measurement indicated that the polar auxin transport from shoot to root was increased by red light. Red light promoted PIN3 expression levels and blue light reduced PIN1, 3–4 expression levels in the shoot/root junction and in the root, indicating that these genes play key roles in auxin transport regulation by red and blue lights. Overall, our findings suggest that three kinds of light qualities regulate LR formation in tobacco seedlings through modification of auxin polar transport.     

Blue Light Interference in the Phytochrome-controlled Germination of the Spores of Cheilanthes farinosa

Short exposure of the spores of Cheilanthes farinosa to low intensity red light promotes their germination, which is not reversed by a subsequent exposure to far red light. Germination is, however, inhibited by blue light administered before or after red light. Inhibition of germination by blue light is annulled by exposure to a higher intensity of red light, and germination of the repromoted spores is inhibited by far red light. Mutual photoreversibility of germination is also observed in repromoted spores irradiated successively with far red and red light. Although germination appears to be basically under phytochrome control, it is postulated that the presence of a blue light-absorbing pigment interferes with phytochrome transformations in the spores.     

有色膜遮光对烤烟生长和光合特性及其初烤品质的影响

以自然光为对照,采用红色、白色、蓝色、黄色4种有色薄膜于2010~2011年从团棵期开始对大田烤烟进行遮光处理,研究不同光质对烤烟生长、光合特性及初烤品质指标的影响。结果显示:(1)红膜处理最大叶长宽比最小、叶面积最大,黄膜处理则相反。(2)红、蓝膜处理烟叶净光合速率、气孔导度、蒸腾速率明显高于自然光处理,白、黄膜处理略高于对照或与对照持平,且遮膜处理前期红膜高于蓝膜处理,后期蓝膜高于红膜处理。(3)红、蓝膜处理有利于提高倒5叶SPAD值,黄膜处理则相反。(4)红膜处理显著降低了中部叶蛋白质、总氮含量和氮碱比,提高了施木克值,并显著提高了上部叶可溶性糖含量和氮碱比,降低了施木克值;蓝膜处理显著提高了中部叶烟碱和多酚含量,降低了可溶性糖含量、施木克值及氮碱比,并显著提高了上部叶蛋白质、总氮、烟碱和多酚含量,降低了施木克值,提高了氮碱比;黄膜处理显著降低了中上部叶蛋白质、总氮、烟碱和多酚含量,提高了上部叶施木克值、降低了氮碱比。研究表明,红、蓝膜处理更利于烟叶发育和光合特性的提高,初烤烟叶化学成分更协调,利于优质烟叶的形成。     

Effect of Light Quality on Stomatal Opening in Leaves of Xanthium strumarium L

Flux response curves were determined at 16 wavelengths of light for the conductance for water vapor of the lower epidermis of detached leaves of Xanthium strumarium L. An action spectrum of stomatal opening resulted in which blue light (wavelengths between 430 and 460 nanometers) was nearly ten times more effective than red light (wavelengths between 630 and 680 nanometers) in producing a conductance of 15 centimoles per square meter per second. Stomata responded only slightly to green light. An action spectrum of stomatal responses to red light corresponded to that of CO₂ assimilation; the inhibitors of photosynthetic electron transport, cyanazine (2-chloro-4[1-cyano-1-methylethylamino]-6-ethylamino-s-triazine) and 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea, eliminated the response to red light. This indicates that light absorption by chlorophyll is the cause of stomatal sensitivity to red light. Determination of flux response curves on leaves in the normal position (upper epidermis facing the light) or in the inverted position (lower epidermis facing the light) led to the conclusion that the photoreceptors for blue as well as for red light are located on or near the surfaces of the leaves; presumably they are in the guard cells themselves.     

Effect of Colored Light on Stomatal Opening Rates of Vicia faba L

The average opening rate of Vicia faba L. stomata was determined over an initial 20-minute light period following darkness. Nonsaturating intensities of broad band red and blue light had similar quantum effectiveness for the promotion of opening, whereas broad band green was about 40% and far red about 5% as effective. The opening rates under saturating red, green, and blue light were the same. Net photosynthesis was measured under various intensities of the same red, green, and blue light spectra. Red and blue light were equally efficient in causing photosynthesis, whereas green was 60% as effective. The light compensation points for the three colors were at higher intensities than those which saturated the opening rate response. These data suggest that only a single pigment system, probably the photosynthetic pigments, is responsible for initiating the light-induced opening response in V. faba stomata.     

光质对烟草叶片生长发育过程中抗氧化系统的影响

以云烟87植株为材料,通过覆盖白、红、黄、蓝、紫色滤膜获得不同光质,于大田条件下研究了光质对烟草叶片生长发育过程中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、过氧化物酶(POD)、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GPX)、谷胱甘肽还原酶(GR)等抗氧化酶活性,抗氧化剂谷胱甘肽(GSH)和抗坏血酸(AsA)以及丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响.结果表明,在烟草植株第11片叶生长发育的7~70 d内,其抗氧化酶活性和抗氧化物质含量呈现先升高后下降的变化趋势.与白光(对照)相比,黄光诱导烟草叶片SOD、CAT、APX和GR活性升高,以及AsA和GSH含量增加;而红光诱导APX和GR活性上升,以及GSH和AsA含量升高;但紫光却使SOD、CAT、POD、GR和GPX活性下降,GSH和AsA含量降低,而蓝光则使所有抗氧化酶活性和抗氧化物质含量降低.紫光和蓝光处理的烟草叶片中MDA含量较高,而黄光和红光处理的则较低.总体而言,在大田条件下,相对红光和黄光而言,蓝光和紫光处理下的烟草叶片更容易发生光氧化胁迫.     

不同光质对烟草叶片生长及光合作用的影响

通过对烟草植株覆盖白、红、黄、蓝、紫色滤膜获得不同光质,研究了光质对烟叶生长及光合作用的影响。结果表明,与白膜处理相比,红膜与蓝膜处理下的烟草叶片较厚,比叶面积较小,叶绿素a/b比值、净光合速率、可变荧光强度（Fv）和最大荧光强度（Fm）的比值Fv/Fm（PSⅡ最大光化学量子效率）、PSⅡ实际光化学量子效率（ΦPSⅡ）、光饱和点和CO2饱和点均较高。黄膜处理下的叶片较白膜处理的更薄,净光合速率、Fv/Fm、ΦPSⅡ、光饱和点、CO2饱和点均较低。紫膜处理的叶片比叶面积比白膜处理的小,净光合速率和Fv/Fm比白膜的大。实验结果表明红光、蓝光和紫光促进了烟叶的生长,这种促进作用是与其高光合效率紧密相连的;而黄光对烟叶的生长有一定程度的抑制作用。     

不同光质对烟草叶片组织结构及Rubisco羧化酶活性和rbc、rca基因表达的影响

通过对烟草植株覆盖白、红、黄、蓝、紫色滤膜获得不同光质,研究了烟草叶片在7～70d的生长发育期内,不同光质处理对烟叶组织结构特征、核酮糖1,5-二磷酸羧化酶/加氧酶（Rubisco）羧化酶活性、Rubisco基因（rbc）表达及其活化酶（Rca）基因（rca）表达的影响。结果表明,与黄膜处理下生长的烟叶相比,红、蓝、紫膜处理下生长的烟叶有较高的叶片厚度、栅栏组织厚度、海绵组织厚度、栅栏细胞密度和较小的组织空隙率。此外,红、蓝、紫膜处理的叶片有较高的Rubis-co羧化酶活性和净光合速率及较强的rbc和rca基因表达。实验结果表明不同光质对烟草叶片的组织结构特征有显著影响,光质可能通过影响Rubisco羧化酶活性进而影响叶片光合效率,而光质、叶片组织结构和光合效率之间存在某种程度的相互联系。     

Effect of Different Light Quality on Photosynthetic Characteristics of Cucumber Leaves

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. cultivar "Changchun Mici") seedlings were cultured in Hoagland solution under irradiation with different light spectra (8 h per day) for 20 days. The red light (λmax 658 nm, λ1/2 25 nm), blue light (λmax 450 nm, λ1/2 43 nm) and white fluorescent light possessed the same fluent rate (20 μmol· m-2·s-1 ). The experimental results showed that chlorophyll content of the leaves grown under white light was 7 % and 22.4% higher than those in red and blue light, respectively. Compared with white and blue light, red light induced a lower Chl a/b ratio and a higher level of Chl b in the cucumber leaves. Measurements of the low temperature (77 K) fluorescence emission spectra and kinetics of Chl a fluorescence induction of the leaves proved that the leaves grown under red light expressed the highest PSⅡ and the lowest PSⅠactivities while the leaves under blue light had the lowest PSⅡand the highest PSⅠ activities. The O2 evolution rate of red light-grown leaves was 44.9% higher than that of the white light-grown leaves, while blue light effect was similar to that of white in respect of O2 evolution. It is concluded that light quality is an important factor in regulating the development and activities of PSⅡ and PSⅡand the O2 evolution of photosynthesis in cucumber leaves.     

Electrical Changes in the Apical Cell of the Fern Gametophyte during Irradiation with Photomorphogenetically Active Light

Electrophysiological procedures were used to evaluate cellular responses of fern (Onoclea sensibilis L.) gametophytes to photomorphogenetically active light. Red, far red, and blue light caused rapid changes in the membrane potential of the apical cell of the gametophyte filament; other cells in the filament were not similarly responsive. Measurements made with one electrode in the apical cell revealed that the membrane potential depolarized in red light and repolarized in far red light. Irradiation with blue light caused a hyperpolarization, the rapidity of which was dependent on a red light pretreatment. More refined measurements with one electrode in the tip of the apical cell and another in the base of the cell showed that both red and blue light treatments cause the apical cell to behave as a dipole. Because of the profound, long-term morphological changes that follow light irradiation in this organism, it was hoped to use it to elucidate the role that electrical parameters play in determining subsequent developmental events.     

The effect of light wavelength on the susceptibility of plants to virus infection

Plants exposed for 24–72 h to light of different wavelengths differed in their subsequent susceptibility to virus infection. French bean leaves were less susceptible to infection by tobacco necrosis virus and Nicotiana glutinosa leaves were less susceptible to infection by tobacco mosaic virus when previously exposed to blue or red light than when exposed to green light. These differences were most pronounced at low energy levels. Leaves exposed to each kind of light were less susceptible than those kept in darkness.     

Row orientation effects on FR/R light ratio, growth and development of field-grown bush bean

Bush bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Tenderette) plants were grown in north-south (N-S) and east-west (E-W) rows under field conditions to test effects of row orientation on reflected far-red (FR) light patterns and on shoot size and edible bean productivity. Soil water and nutrients were adequate. Plants in N-S rows received slightly higher ratios of FR relative to red (R) light, because of heliotropic movement of the leaves. Plants in N-S rows partitioned more dry matter to shoots and edible green beans than those in E-W rows. We conclude that row orientation of broadleaf plants can affect the FR/R light ratio and the phytochrome-mediated regulation of plant development under field conditions.     

Photocontrol of Hook Opening in Cuscuta gronovii Willd

Hook opening in seedlings of Cuscuta gronovii Willd. occurred only after prolonged exposures to blue, red, or far red light. Prolonged far red exposure was less effective than prolonged exposure to red or blue light. Brief far red irradiation inhibited the inductive effect of red light. The far red inhibition was in turn reversed by brief red irradiation. These effects suggest the involvement of two photosystems in the control of hook opening in Cuscuta gronovii Willd.: a phytochrome-mediated system and a separate high energy requirement.     

Stomatal Opening in Light of Different Wavelengths: Effects of Blue Light Independent of Carbon Dioxide Concentration

Stomatal opening in Xanthium pennsylvanicum was found to besignificantly greater in blue light than in red. Experimentsin which leaves were placed in a closed system and allowed toestablish their own steady-state carbon dioxide concentrationshowed that when the CO₂ concentration was about the same asthat in red, opening was much greater in blue light. Blue lightof low intensity could cause as great an opening as red of higherintensity, even though the CO₂ concentration was much higherin blue. Stomatal opening in light is considered as involvingat least two reactions: (1) a response to the removal of CO₂by photosynthesis; (2) a response to blue light not dependenton the removal of CO₂. Blue light became increasingly effective, relative to red, asthe length of night was increased over the range 2 to 14 hours.This might, in part, explain previously observed effects ofnight length on rate of opening in light. The initial very rapid phase of closure in darkness appearedto be independent of CO₂ accumulation, for it was not preventedby flushing the intercellular spaces with air free of CO₂. Itis suggested that closure in darkness, like opening in light,should be considered as involving components both dependentupon, and independent of, CO₂ concentration.     

Induction of delta-Aminolevulinic Acid Formation in Etiolated Maize Leaves Controlled by Two Light Systems

A short illumination of etiolated maize (Zea mays) leaves with red light causes a protochlorophyll(ide)-chlorophyll(ide) conversion and induces the synthesis of δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) during a subsequent dark period. In leaves treated with levulinic acid, more ALA is formed in the dark than in control leaves. Far red light does not cause a conversion of protochlorophyll(ide) into chlorophyll(ide) and does not induce accumulation of ALA in the dark. Both red and far red preilluminations cause a significant potentiation of ALA synthesis during a period of white light subsequent to the dark period. The results indicate a dual light control of ALA formation. The possible role of phytochrome and protochlorophyllide as photoreceptors in this control system is discussed.     

Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenases and Glyoxylate Reductase: I. Their Regulation Under Continuous Red and Far Red Light in the Cotyledons of Sinapis alba L

The development of NADP- and NAD-dependent glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and NADH-specific glyoxylate reductase was followed in Sinapis alba cotyledons grown in the dark or under continuous red and far red light. All three enzyme activities are promoted by light, continuous far red light being more than twice as effective as continuous red light. The activities of the NADP-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and glyoxylate reductase increase in the far red light from 36 to 96 hours. They remain constant until at least 120 hours after sowing and are respectively 11 and 6 times higher than the maximum dark activities. Contrary to this, the activity of the NAD-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is scarcely more than doubled under continuous far red irradiation relative to its maximal dark level, and its time course curve is displaced along the time axis, with the activity increasing between 24 and 72 hours after sowing.     

Rapid and Specific Modulation of Stomatal Conductance by Blue Light in Ivy (Hedera helix) : An Approach to Assess the Stomatal Limitation of Carbon Assimilation

Low intensity (0.015 millimole per square meter per second) blue light applied to leaves of Hedera helix under a high intensity red light background (0.50 millimole per square meter per second red light) induced a specific stomatal opening response, with rapid kinetics comparable to those previously reported for stomata with `grass type' morphology. The response of stomatal conductance to blue light showed a transient `overshoot' behavior at high vapor pressure difference (2.25 ± 0.15 kiloPascals), but not at low vapor pressure difference (VPD) (0.90 ± 0.10 kilo-Pascal). The blue light-induced conductance increase was accompanied by an increase in net photosynthetic carbon assimilation, mediated by an increase in the intercellular concentration of carbon dioxide. Values of assimilation once the blue light-stimulated conductance increase reached steady state were less than those at the peak of the overshoot, but the ratios of assimilation to transpiration (A/E) and blue light-stimulated ΔA/ΔE were greater during the steady-state response than during the overshoot. These results indicate that significant stomatal limitation of assimilation can occur, but that this limitation may improve water use efficiency under high VPD conditions. Under high intensity red light, the decline in A/E associated with an increase in VPD was minimized when conductance was stimulated by additional low intensity blue light. This effect indicates that the blue light response of stomata may be important in H. helix for the optimization of water use efficiency under natural conditions of high irradiance and VPD.