Site-directed mutagenesis of yeast C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase: analysis of an overlapping active site in a multifunctional enzyme

C1-tetrahydrofolate (THF) synthase is a trifunctional protein possessing the activities 10-formyl-THF synthetase, 5,10-methenyl-THF cyclohydrolase, and 5,10-methylene-THF dehydrogenase. The current model divides this protein into two functionally independent domains with dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase activities sharing an overlapping active site on the N-terminal domain and synthetase activity associated with the C-terminal domain. Previous chemical modification studies on C1-THF synthase from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicated at least two cysteinyl residues involved in the dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase reactions [Appling, D. R., & Rabinowitz, J. C. (1985) Biochemistry 24, 3540-3547]. In the present work, site-directed mutagenesis of the S. cerevisiae ADE3 gene, which encodes C1-THF synthase, was used to individually change each cysteine contained within the dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase domain (Cys-11, Cys-144, and Cys-257) to serine. The resulting proteins were overexpressed in yeast and purified for kinetic analysis. Site-specific mutations in the dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase domain did not affect synthetase activity, consistent with the proposed domain structure. The C144S and C257S mutations result in 7- and 2-fold increases, respectively, in the dehydrogenase Km for NADP+. C144S lowers the dehydrogenase maximal velocity roughly 50% while C257S has a maximal velocity similar to that of the wild type. Cyclohydrolase catalytic activity is reduced 20-fold by the C144S mutation but increased 2-fold by the C257S mutation. Conversion of Cys-11 to serine has a negligible effect on dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase activity. A double mutant, C144S/C257S, results in catalytic properties roughly multiplicative of the individual mutations.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

N-terminal intramolecularly conserved histidines of three domains in Gonyaulax luciferase are responsible for loss of activity in the alkaline region

Gonyaulax luciferase is a single-chain ( approximately 137 kDa) polypeptide comprising 111 N-terminal amino acids followed by three contiguous homologous domains (377 amino acids each). Each domain has luciferase activity, accounting for the earlier observation that proteolytic fragments ( approximately 35 kDa) of luciferase are active. The activity of the full-length native enzyme is maximal at pH 6.3, dropping to near zero at pH 8; the activity of fragments also peaks at pH 6.3 but remains high at 8. While the activity loss at higher pH might be thought to be associated with the conformation of the full-length protein, we show here that this is a property of individual domains. The three intramolecularly homologous domains, separately cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli as fusion proteins, exhibit pH-activity curves similar to that of the full-length enzyme. For each domain the removal of approximately 50 N-terminal amino acids resulted in an increase in the ratio of luciferase activity at pH 8 relative to that at pH 6.3, such that their pH-activity profiles mimicked that of the proteolytic fragments reported earlier. Replacement of N-terminal histidines by alanine by site-directed mutagenesis identified four that are involved in the loss of activity at high pH. This system illustrates an unusual, possibly unique mechanism for pH regulation of enzyme activity, which has been postulated to be responsible for the control of the characteristic flashes of bioluminescence.     

Expression and Deletion Mutagenesis of Tryptophan Hydroxylase Fusion Proteins: Delineation of the Enzyme Catalytic Core

Abstract: cDNAs encoding the full-length sequence for tryptophan hydroxylase, and deletion mutants consisting of the regulatory (amino acids 1–98) or catalytic (amino acids 99–444) domains of the enzyme, were cloned and expressed as glutathione S -transferase fusion proteins in E. coli . The recombinant fusion proteins could be purified to near homogeneity within minutes by affinity chromatography on glutathione-agarose. The full-length enzyme and the catalytic core expressed very high levels of tryptophan hydroxylase activity. The regulatory domain was devoid of activity. The full-length enzyme and the catalytic core, while adsorbed to glutathione-agarose beads, obeyed Michaelis-Menten kinetics, and the kinetic properties of each recombinant enzyme for cofactor and substrate compared very closely to native, brain tryptophan hydroxylase. Both active forms of the glutathione S -transferase-tryptophan hydroxylase fusion proteins had strict requirements for ferrous iron in catalysis and expressed much higher levels of activity ( V _max) than the brain enzyme. Analysis of full-length tryptophan hydroxylase and the catalytic core by molecular sieve chromatography under nondenaturing conditions revealed that each fusion protein behaved as a tetrameric species. These results indicate that a truncated tryptophan hydroxylase, consisting of amino acids 99–444 of the full-length enzyme, contains the sequence motifs needed for subunit assembly. Both wild-type tryptophan hydroxylase and the catalytic core are expressed as apoenzymes which are converted to holoenzymes by exogenous iron. The tryptophan hydroxylase catalytic core is also as active as the full-length enzyme, suggesting the possibility that the regulatory domain exerts a suppressive effect on the catalytic core of tryptophan hydroxylase.     

Heterologous expression and purification of active human phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase as a single domain

We report here for the first time that the GART domain of the human trifunctional enzyme possessing GARS, AIRS, and GART activities can be expressed independently inEscherichia coli at high levels as a stable protein with enzymatic characteristics comparable to those of native trifunctional protein. Human trifunctional enzyme is involved inde novo purine biosynthesis, and has long been recognized as a target for antineoplastic intervention. The GART domain was expressed inE. coli under the control of bacteriophage T7 promotor and isolated by a three-step chromatographic procedure. Two residues, Asp 951 and His 915, were shown to be catalytically crucial by site-directed mutagenesis and subsequent characterization of purified mutant proteins. The active monofunctional GART protein produced inE. coli can serve as a valuable substitute of trifunctional enzyme for structural and functional studies which have been until now hindered because of insufficient quantity, instability, and size of the trifunctional GART protein.     

The mtaA gene of the myxothiazol biosynthetic gene cluster from Stigmatella aurantiaca DW4/3-1 encodes a phosphopantetheinyl transferase that activates polyketide synthases and polypeptide synthetases

Myxothiazol is synthesized by the myxobacterium Stigmatella aurantiaca DW4/3-1 via a combined polyketide synthase/polypeptide synthetase. The biosynthesis of this secondary metabolite is also dependent on the gene product of mtaA. The deduced amino acid sequence of mtaA shows similarity to 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferases (4'-PP transferase). This points to an enzyme activity that converts inactive forms of the acyl carrier protein domains of polyketide synthetases (PKSs) and/or the peptidyl carrier protein domains of nonribosomal polypeptide synthetases (NRPSs) of the myxothiazol synthetase complex to their corresponding holo-forms. Heterologous co-expression of MtaA with an acyl carrier protein domain of the myxothiazol synthetase was performed in Escherichia coli. The proposed function as a 4'-PP transferase was confirmed and emphasizes the significance of MtaA for the formation of a catalytically active myxothiazol synthetase complex. Additionally, it is shown that MtaA has a relaxed substrate specificity: it processes an aryl carrier protein domain derived from the enterobactin synthetase of E. coli (ArCP) as well as a peptidyl carrier protein domain from a polypeptide synthetase of yet unknown function from Sorangium cellulosum. Therefore, MtaA should be a useful tool for activating heterologously expressed PKS and NRPS systems.     

Calmodulin binds to and inhibits the activity of the membrane distal catalytic domain of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase alpha

cDNA expression library screening revealed binding between the membrane distal catalytic domain (D2) of protein-tyrosine phosphatase alpha (PTPalpha) and calmodulin. Characterization using surface plasmon resonance showed that calmodulin bound to PTPalpha-D2 in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner but did not bind to the membrane proximal catalytic domain (D1) of PTPalpha, to the two tandem catalytic domains (D1D2) of PTPalpha, nor to the closely related D2 domain of PTPepsilon. Calmodulin bound to PTPalpha-D2 with high affinity, exhibiting a K(D) approximately 3 nm. The calmodulin-binding site was localized to amino acids 520-538 in the N-terminal region of D2. Site-directed mutagenesis showed that Lys-521 and Asn-534 were required for optimum calmodulin binding and that restoration of these amino acids to the counterpart PTPepsilon sequence could confer calmodulin binding. The overlap of the binding site with the predicted lip of the catalytic cleft of PTPalpha-D2, in conjunction with the observation that calmodulin acts as a competitive inhibitor of D2-catalyzed dephosphorylation (K(i) approximately 340 nm), suggests that binding of calmodulin physically blocks or distorts the catalytic cleft of PTPalpha-D2 to prevent interaction with substrate. When expressed in cells, full-length PTPalpha and PTPalpha lacking only D1, but not full-length PTPepsilon, bound to calmodulin beads in the presence of Ca(2+). Also, PTPalpha was found in association with calmodulin immunoprecipitated from cell lysates. Thus calmodulin does associate with PTPalpha in vivo but not with PTPalpha-D1D2 in vitro, highlighting a potential conformational difference between these forms of the tandem catalytic domains. The above findings suggest that calmodulin is a possible specific modulator of PTPalpha-D2 and, via D2, of PTPalpha.     

Expression, purification, and characterization of HMWP2, a 229 kDa, six domain protein subunit of Yersiniabactin synthetase

The six domain, 229 kDa HMWP2 subunit of the Yersinia pestis yersiniabactin (Ybt) synthetase has been expressed in soluble, full-length form in E. coli as a C-terminal His8 construct at low growth temperatures and with attenuated induction. All six domains of this nonribosomal peptide synthetase subunit, three phosphopantetheinylatable carrier protein domains (ArCP, PCP1, PCP2), one adenylation (A) domain, and two cyclization domains (Cy1, Cy2), have been assayed and are functional. Mutants that convert the phosphopantetheinylatable serine residue to alanine in each of the carrier protein domains accumulate acyl-S-enzyme intermediates upstream of the blocked apo carrier protein site. The ArCP mutant cannot be salicylated by the adenylation protein YbtE; the PCP1 mutant releases salicyl-cysteine from thiolysis of the Sal-S-ArCP intermediate; and the PCP2 mutant releases hydroxyphenyl-thiazolinyl-cysteine from the HPT-S-PCP1 acyl enzyme intermediate, all of which demonstrates processivity and directionality of chain growth. Restoration of the ArCP mutant's function was accomplished with the native ArCP fragment added in trans. The wild-type HMWP2 subunit accumulates hydroxyphenyl-4, 2-bithiazolinyl-S-enzyme at its most downstream PCP2 carrier site, presumably for transfer to the next subunit, HMWP1. The A domain was found to activate and transfer to PCP1 and PCP2 not only the natural L-Cys but also S-2-aminobutyrate, L-beta-chloroalanine, and L-Ser, enabling testing of the substrate specificity of the Cy domain. Probes of Cy domain function include mutagenesis of the Cy1 domain's conserved signature motif DX(4)DX(2)S to show that both D residues but not the S are crucial for both amide bond formation and heterocyclization. Also the Cy1 domain would accept an alternate upstream electrophilic donor substrate (2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl-S-ArCP) but would not process any of the three alternate downstream nucleophilic acceptors in place of Cys-S-PCP1, even for the amide bond-forming step in chain elongation.     

Isolation and sequencing of the cDNA coding for spinach 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase. Comparisons with the yeast, mammalian, and bacterial proteins.

The one-carbon metabolism enzymes 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (EC 6.3.4.3), 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase (EC 3.5.4.9), and 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase (EC 1.5.1.5) can be found on a single trifunctional protein in the eukaryotes examined. The one exception is in spinach leaves where 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase is monofunctional (Nour, J. M., and Rabinowitz, J. C. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 18363-18369). In the prokaryotes examined, 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase is either absent or is monofunctional. A cDNA clone encoding spinach leaf 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase was isolated through the use of antibodies to the purified enzyme. This clone had an open reading frame of 1914 base pairs and encoded for a protein containing 636 amino acids with a calculated M(r) of 67,727. The percentage identity between spinach 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase and the synthetase domains in the four trifunctional eukaryotic enzymes and the two monofunctional prokaryotic enzymes that have been cloned and sequenced was: 64.9% human, 63.8% rat, 55.6% yeast cytoplasm, 53.8% yeast mitochondria, 47.8% Clostridium acidi-urici, and 47.9% Clostridium thermoaceticum. Clearly the spinach monofunctional protein had greatest homology with the mammalian proteins. The spinach protein is longer than the two other monofunctional prokaryotic proteins. Possible reasons for this are presented. The codon usage and the putative translation initiation sites are examined and compared with other spinach proteins.     

10-Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase. Evidence for a conformational change in the enzyme upon binding of tetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates

The 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase domain of the trifunctional enzyme C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase appears to undergo a conformational change in the presence of tetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates, MgATP, and ammonium ion. The binding of these ligands increases the denaturation temperature of the enzyme by 12 degrees C, abolishes the cold lability of the enzyme, and alters its susceptibility to digestion by chymotrypsin. The results suggest that a conformational change is dependent upon binding of the third glutamate residue of tetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates and the beta-phosphoryl group of MgATP. The Km values for MgATP and formate are lowered 3.6- and 520-fold, respectively, when tetrahydropteroyltriglutamate is used as the substrate in place of tetrahydropteroylmonoglutamate. A sensitive coupled assay involving C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase and serine hydroxymethyltransferase was developed to determine the activity of 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase. The assay gives linear rates with the tetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates as substrates but not with the monoglutamate form.     

Nucleotide sequence of the Clostridium acidiurici ("Clostridium acidi-urici") gene for 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase shows extensive amino acid homology with the trifunctional enzyme C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The nucleotide sequence of the gene for 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (EC 6.3.4.3) from Clostridium acidiurici ("Clostridium acidi-urici") was determined. The synthetase mRNA initiation and termination regions were determined by primer extension and S1 nuclease mapping. Two potential -10 and -35 promoter regions were identified upstream of mRNA initiation. The terminator region was found to be in a large region of dyad symmetry. A comparison of the amino acid sequences of the monofunctional synthetase and the eucaryotic trifunctional enzyme, C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase, from Saccharomyces cerevisiae demonstrated a region of strong homology.     

Mapping and molecular modeling of a recognition domain for lysosomal enzyme targeting.

Lysosomal enzymes contain a common protein determinant that is recognized by UDP-GlcNAc:lysosomal enzyme N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, the initial enzyme in the biosynthesis of mannose-6-P residues. Previously, we generated a lysosomal enzyme recognition domain by substituting two regions (lysine 203 and amino acids 265-292) of the lysosomal hydrolase cathepsin D into a related secretory protein glycopepsinogen. When expressed in Xenopus oocytes, the oligosaccharides of the chimeric protein were efficiently phosphorylated (Baranski, T. J., Faust, P. L., and Kornfeld, S. (1990) Cell 63, 281-291). In the current study, incremental substitutions of cathepsin D residues into glycopepsinogen and alanine-scanning mutagenesis were utilized to define the recognition domain more precisely. A computer-generated model of the cathepsin D/pepsinogen chimeric molecule served as a guide for mutagenesis and for the interpretation of results. These studies indicate that the recognition domain is a surface patch that contains multiple interacting sites. There is a strict positional requirement for the lysine residue at position 203.     

C1-Tetrahydrofolate synthase from rabbit liver. Structural and kinetic properties of the enzyme and its two domains

C1-Tetrahydrofolate synthase is a multifunctional enzyme which catalyzes three reactions in 1-carbon metabolism: 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase; 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase; 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase. A rapid 1-day purification procedure has been developed which gives 40 mg of pure enzyme from 10 rabbit livers. The 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity of this trifunctional enzyme has a specific activity that is 4-fold higher than the enzyme previously purified from rabbit liver. Conditions have been developed for the rapid isolation of a tryptic fragment of the enzyme which contains the methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase and methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase activities. This fragment is a monomer exhibiting a subunit and native molecular weight of 36,000 in most buffers. However, in phosphate buffers the native molecular weight suggests that the fragment is a dimer. Conditions are also given whereby chymotryptic digestion allows the simultaneous isolation from the native enzyme of a large fragment containing the 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity and a smaller fragment containing the dehydrogenase and cyclohydrolase activities. The large fragment is a dimer with a subunit molecular weight of 66,000. The small fragment retains all of the dehydrogenase and cyclohydrolase activities of the native enzyme. The large fragment is unstable but retains most of the 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity. Km values of substrates for the two fragments are the same as the values for the native enzyme. The 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity of the native enzyme requires ammonium or potassium ions for expression of full catalytic activity. The effect of these two ions on the catalytic activity of the large chymotryptic fragment is the same as with the native enzyme. We have shown by differential scanning calorimetry that the native enzyme contains two protein domains which show thermal transitions at 47 and 60 degrees C. Evidence is presented that the two domains are related to the two protein fragments generated by proteolysis of the native enzyme. The larger of the two domains contains the active site for the 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity while the smaller domain contains the active site which catalyzes the dehydrogenase and cyclohydrolase reactions. Replacement of sodium ion buffers with either ammonium or potassium ions results in an increase in stability of the large domain of the native enzyme. This change in stability is not accompanied by a change in the quaternary structure of the enzyme.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Cerulenin resistance in a cerulenin-producing fungus. III. Studies on active-site peptides of fatty acid synthetase from Cephalosporium caerulens

Active-site peptides of acetyl transferase, condensing enzyme and acyl carrier protein in the neighborhood of the prosthetic group, 4'-phosphopantetheine, of Cephalosporium caerulens fatty acid synthetase were investigated. The enzyme was reacted with [14C]acetyl-CoA or [14C]iodoacetamide. 14C-Labeled enzyme was digested with pepsin, trypsin or both. 14C-Labeled peptides were isolated by several purification procedures. The amino acid sequence of the active site of condensing enzyme was determined to be Tyr-Gln-Val-Glu-Ser-Cys-Pro-Ile-Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys and that of acetyl transferase was Phe-Ser-Gly-Ala-Thr-Gly-His-Ser-Gln-Gly. The amino acid composition around the 4'-phosphopantetheine-carrying serine was determined to be Asx2, Thr, Ser, Glx3, Gly2, Ala, Ile, Leu3, and Lys. When these active-site peptides were compared with those of Saccharomyces cerevisiae synthetase, a high degree of homology was observed in the active-site peptides of the acetyl transferase and acyl carrier protein domains. However, that of the condensing enzyme domain gave lower homology. These findings may support the assumption that the low reactivity of cerulenin with C. caerulens synthetase is a consequence of the structure of the condensing enzyme domain.     

De novo purine nucleotide biosynthesis: cloning of human and avian cDNAs encoding the trifunctional glycinamide ribonucleotide synthetase-aminoimidazole ribonucleotide synthetase-glycinamide ribonucleotide transformylase by functional complementation in E. coli.

The trifunctional enzyme encoding glycinamide ribonucleotide synthetase (GARS)-aminoimidazole ribonucleotide synthetase (AIRS)-glycinamide ribonucleotide transformylase (GART) was cloned by functional complementation of an E. coli mutant using an avian liver cDNA expression library. In E. coli, genes encoding these separate activities (purD, purM, and purN, respectively) produce three proteins. The avian cDNA, in contrast, encodes a single polypeptide with all three enzyme activities. Using the avian DNA as a probe, a cDNA encoding the complete coding sequence of the trifunctional human enzyme was also isolated and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence of the human and avian polyproteins show extensive sequence homologies to the bacterial purD, purM, and purN encoded proteins. Avian and human liver RNAs appear to encode both a trifunctional enzyme (G-ARS-AIRS-GART) as well as an RNA which encodes only GARS. The trifunctional protein has been implicated in the pathology of Downs Syndrome and molecular tools are now available to explore this hypothesis. Initial efforts to compare the expression of GARS-AIRS-GART between a normal fibroblast cell line and a Downs Syndrome cell line indicate that the levels of RNA are similar.     

Structures of three inhibitor complexes provide insight into the reaction mechanism of the human methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase

Enzymes involved in tetrahydrofolate metabolism are of particular pharmaceutical interest, as their function is crucial for amino acid and DNA biosynthesis. The crystal structure of the human cytosolic methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase (DC301) domain of a trifunctional enzyme has been determined previously with a bound NADP cofactor. While the substrate binding site was identified to be localized in a deep and rather hydrophobic cleft at the interface between two protein domains, the unambiguous assignment of catalytic residues was not possible. We succeeded in determining the crystal structures of three ternary DC301/NADP/inhibitor complexes. Investigation of these structures followed by site-directed mutagenesis studies allowed identification of the amino acids involved in catalysis by both enzyme activities. The inhibitors bind close to Lys56 and Tyr52, residues of a strictly conserved motif for active sites in dehydrogenases. While Lys56 is in a good position for chemical interaction with the substrate analogue, Tyr52 was found stacking against the inhibitors' aromatic rings and hence seems to be more important for proper positioning of the ligand than for catalysis. Also, Ser49 and/or Cys147 were found to possibly act as an activator for water in the cyclohydrolase step. These and the other residues (Gln100 and Asp125), with which contacts are made, are strictly conserved in THF dehydrogenases. On the basis of structural and mutagenesis data, we propose a reaction mechanism for both activities, the dehydrogenase and the cyclohydrolase.     

A common ancestor for Candida tropicalis and dehydrogenases that synthesize antibiotics and steroids

Candida tropicalis peroxisomes contain a 905-residue trifunctional enzyme with hydratase-dehydrogenase-epimerase activity that is important in fatty acid beta-oxidation. At its amino terminus are two tandem copies of an approximately 280 residue domain of unknown function. We provide evidence that this domain is homologous to oxidoreductases used for metabolizing sugars and synthesizing antibiotics and steroids such as estradiol, androstenedione, corticosterone, and hydrocortisone. The trifunctional enzyme shows no sequence similarity to the bifunctional hydratase-dehydrogenase found in animal peroxisomes and plant glyoxysomes, which are homologs of each other. We suggest that the C. tropicalis trifunctional enzyme and the animal and plant bifunctional enzymes have different ancestors.     

A single polymorphism disrupts the killer Ig-like receptor 2DL2/2DL3 D1 domain

Genetic polymorphisms found in the killer Ig-like receptor (KIR), two domains, long cytoplasmic tail 2/3 (KIR2DL2/3) locus are responsible for the differential binding of KIR2DL2/3 allelic products with their HLA-C ligands and have been associated with the resolution of hepatitis C infection. In our study, a KIR CD3zeta fusion-binding assay did not detect any interaction between the KIR2DL2*004 extracellular domain and several putative KIR2DL2/3 ligands. To determine the amino acid polymorphism(s) responsible for the KIR2DL2*004 phenotype, we mutated the polymorphic residues of full-length KIR and expressed them in human Jurkat cells. Flow cytometry analysis failed to detect the surface expression of receptors containing a threonine at position 41 (T41), a polymorphism specific to KIR2DL2*004. Confocal microscopy showed that receptors containing T41 were retained inside the cell and had a perinuclear localization, possibly indicating that their extracellular domain was misfolded. Most KIR2DL2/3 alleles possess an arginine at position 41 (R41), and we predicted through molecular modeling and demonstrated by mutagenesis that R41 most likely interacts with the nearby residues Y77 and D47. Interaction between these residues would maintain C strand contact with the C' and F strands of the D1 domain beta-sheet. Furthermore, R41 and Y77 are conserved in the C and F strand amino acid alignments of Ig-like superfamily members, and may therefore be necessary for the structural integrity of other immune response proteins. Our data indicate that the extracellular T41 polymorphism encoded by the KIR2DL2*004 allele most likely results in misfolding of the D1 domain and complete intracellular retention of the receptor.     

The C2 domain of protein kinase calpha is directly involved in the diacylglycerol-dependent binding of the C1 domain to the membrane

Protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha), which is known to be critical for the control of many cellular processes, was submitted to site-directed mutagenesis in order to test the functionality of several amino acidic residues. Thus, D187, D246 and D248, all of which are located at the Ca(2+) binding site of the C2 domain, were substituted by N. Subcellular fractionation experiments demonstrated that these mutations are important for both Ca(2+)-dependent and diacylglycerol-dependent membrane binding. The mutants are not able to phosphorylate typical PKC substrates, such as histone and myelin basic protein. Furthermore, using increasing concentrations of dioleylglycerol, one of the mutants (D246/248N) was able to recover total activity although the amounts of dioleylglycerol it required were larger than those required by wild type protein. On the other hand, the other mutants (D187N and D187/246/248) only recovered 50% of their activity. These data suggest that there is a relationship between the C1 domain, where dioleylglycerol binds, and the C2 domain, and that this relationship is very important for enzyme activation. These findings led us to propose a mechanism for PKCalpha activation, where C1 and C2 domains cannot be considered independent membrane binding modules.