Amazon Forestry Tranformed: Integrating Knowledge for Smallholder Timber Managemet in Eastern Brazil

Recent discussions of local knowledge emphasize its dynamic nature invoking local peoples’ ability to effectively integrate traditional or local with science-based or “modern” knowledges. The smallholder timber industry of the Amazon’s estuarine floodplain provides an outstanding example of local patterns of resource management and economic activities transformed from within by smallholder farmers who participated in the industrial timber boom of the 1970s and 1980s. These farmers of eastern Amazonia have developed a vertically integrated local industry based on expertise reflecting profound locally developed knowledge of specific forests and management of ecological processes, individual observation and experimentation, as well as concepts and practices derived from temporary employment by large-scale industrial timber firms. At each stage of the smallholder forestry process—from managing natural regeneration to running small sawmills and marketing lumber—local managers apply an innovative set of practices reflecting their diverse experiences. This combination of technical, market, and ecological knowledge results in forests, timber markets, and economic patterns that do not correspond to many of the widely-held generalizations concerning either local or industrial tropical timber exploitation. This article uses data from 7 years of research in the Amazon floodplain.

Fire in the Brazilian Amazon 2. Biomass, nutrient pools and losses in cattle pastures

Conversion to cattle pasture is the most common fate of the ≈426,000 km² of tropical forest that has been deforested in the Brazilian Amazon. Yet little is known about the biomass, C, nutrient pools, or their responses to the frequent fires occurring in these pastures. We sampled biomass, nutrient pools and their losses or transformation during fire in three Amazonian cattle pastures with typical, but different, land-use histories. Total aboveground biomass (TAGB) ranged from to 53 to 119 Mg ha⁻¹. Residual wood debris from the forests that formally occupied the sites composed the majority of TAGB (47–87%). Biomass of fine fuels, principally pasture grasses, was ≈16–29 Mg ha⁻¹. Grasses contained as much as 52% of the aboveground K pool and the grass and litter components combined composed as much as 88% of the aboveground P pool. Fires consumed 21–84% of the TAGB. Losses of C to the atmosphere ranged from 11 to 21 Mg ha⁻¹ and N losses ranged from 205 to 261 kg ha⁻¹. Losses of S, P, Ca, and K were <33 kg ha⁻¹. There were no changes in surface soil (0–10 cm) nutrient concentration in pastures compared to adjacent primary forests. Fires occur frequently in cattle pastures (i.e., about every 2 years) and pastures are now likely the most common type of land burned in Amazonia. The first 6 years of a pastures existence would likely include the primary forest slash fire and three pasture fires. Based upon our results, the cumulative losses of N from these fires would be 1935 kg ha⁻¹ (equivalent to 94% of the aboveground pool of primary forest). Postfire aboveground C pools in old pastures are as low as 3% of those in adjacent primary forest. The initial primary forest slash fire and the repeated fires occurring in the pastures result in the majority of aboveground C and nutrient pools being released via combustion processes rather than decomposition processes. Received: 6 January 1997 / Accepted: 2 September 1997     

Deforestation and land use in the Brazilian Amazon

Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon was less than 1% before 1975. Between 1975 and 1987 the rate increased exponentially. By 1985, world opinion and attention to the destruction of the richest biome on earth led to elimination of some of the major incentives that had fueled deforestation. Favorable credit policies for cattle ranchers, rather than population growth, explains the process of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. The paper suggests other actions that may be taken to reduce deforestation, and examines the rapid growth rates of secondary successional species in a colonization area.     

Influence of Deforestation,Logging, and Fire on Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon

Malaria is a significant public health threat in the Brazilian Amazon. Previous research has shown that deforestation creates breeding sites for the main malaria vector in Brazil, Anopheles darlingi, but the influence of selective logging, forest fires, and road construction on malaria risk has not been assessed. To understand these impacts, we constructed a negative binomial model of malaria counts at the municipality level controlling for human population and social and environmental risk factors. Both paved and unpaved roadways and fire zones in a municipality increased malaria risk. Within the timber production states where 90% of deforestation has occurred, compared with areas without selective logging, municipalities where 0–7% of the remaining forests were selectively logged had the highest malaria risk (1.72, 95% CI 1.18–2.51), and areas with higher rates of selective logging had the lowest risk (0.39, 95% CI 0.23–0.67). We show that roads, forest fires, and selective logging are previously unrecognized risk factors for malaria in the Brazilian Amazon and highlight the need for regulation and monitoring of sub-canopy forest disturbance.     

Deforestation and sewage effects on aquatic macroinvertebrates in urban streams in Manaus,Amazonas, Brazil

In the last few years, awareness in developed countries has increased regarding the importance of urban watercourses as essential natural resources for human well being. Macroinvertebrates have been used as bioindicators to complement physico-chemical evaluation of water quality after environmental perturbations. The city of Manaus is closely associated with the Amazonian rain forest and with its dense hydrographic network. Any perturbation, such as deforestation and/or water pollution in the city’s streams, therefore causes changes in the local ecosystem as the population increases. In this study, 65 streams were sampled in October and November 2003. Samples were taken from stream-bed sediment in the center of the channel and litter/sediment at the edge of the stream. Deforestation, total Nitrogen (TN), total Phosphorus (TP), depth, width, electrical conductivity, temperature and dissolved Oxygen (DO) were measured. A total of 115,549 specimens were collected, distributed among 152 taxa. Oligochaeta, Chironomus, Psychodidae and Ceratopogonidae were the taxa with the greatest frequencies of occurrence and the highest total abundances. Higher deforestation, TN and TP were correlated with lower DO and greater electrical conductivity, pH and water temperature. Deforestation, TN and TP were not associated with water velocity and stream width. Depth was the only variable correlated (negatively) with deforestation and not correlated with TN and TP. Greater deforestation, TN and TP were correlated with lower richness of taxa; but these variables did not affect abundance. Canonical Correspondence Analysis ordenated the streams into two groups; the majority of the streams were in the group with high levels of deforestation and with high values of TP, TN, pH, electrical conductivity and temperature, where the macroinvertebrates were reduced to a few taxa. The other group was composed of streams that were well oxygenated and deep, where richness of taxa was higher. These results indicate changes in community composition in response to changes in environmental conditions. The highest taxa correlation was with streams that were well oxygenated and had the greatest depth and water velocity. Species Indicator Analysis identified 29 taxa as indicators of nonimpacted streams, 16 as indicators of deforested streams and three as indicators of streams impacted by deforestation and domestic sewage. Of the total sampled streams, 80% were impacted by deforestation and water pollution and had fauna tolerant of these perturbations. Water pollution, represented by TN and TP, affected the macroinvertebrate fauna in a way similar to deforestation, i.e., causing reduction in taxa richness, simplifying the insect community composition without changing abundance. Use of the taxa suggested in this study as environmental indicators could improve the evaluation of water quality in the streams in Central Amazonia. Electronic supplementary material Electronic supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users. Handling editor: D. Dudgeon     

Palaeoecological investigations towards the reconstruction of the history of forest clearances and coastal heathlands in south-western Norway

Palynological data collected over a period of 60 years have been compiled and re-interpreted in order to reveal the patterns of deforestation and health establishment in the south-western Norwegian coastal heathland. This heathland area has been divided into four sub-regions based on topography, bedrock and drift cover. The palynological investigations are from sites with pollen source areas of different sizes. The palynological signals are interpreted in terms of models that suggest an abrupt, gradual or stepwise deforestation which can be explained by terms of different pollen source areas. The deforestation seems to have been metachronous, leading to a regional mosaic pattern of different vegetation types. The deforestation process spanned more than 3600 calendar years (4000-400 B.C.), with three pronounced clearance periods at 4000-3600 B.C. (Mesolithic/Early Neolithic transition), 2500-2200 B.C. (Middle Neolithic II/Early Late Neolithic transition), and 1900-1400 B.C. (Late Neolithic to Bronze Age period II). The expansion of heathland has also been metachronous and took place over a period of ca. 4000 years between 4000-200 B.C., but was mainly completed by the end of the Bronze Age. Regional differences in the chronology of deforestation and heathland establishment are discussed. Deforestation with subsequent heathland expansion can best be explained in terms of the interaction between land-use history, topography and edaphic conditions under climatic conditions that favoured heathland development.     

The Local Perception of Tropical Deforestation and its Relation to Conservation Policies in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve,Mexico

We examine the ways both deforestation and conservation are viewed by people of two villages with different ethnic composition located within the biosphere reserve of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. The rain forest is considered to be important, since it provides many resources and environmental benefits. Residents do notice forest degradation, although deforestation is not one of their major concerns. In the mestizo village, 65% of interviewees indicated they felt responsible for deforestation, while only 30% of indigenous villagers felt the same. In both communities, nearly half the respondents see themselves as powerless to take actions to preserve the forest. We analyzed the management plan for the reserve in light of our results, and found authorities’ perceptions differ from that of local communities. This study emphasizes the lack of factual data and common goals for biodiversity conservation. Our work points to the urgency to build conservation efforts that involve the different social actors, who diverge in interests and views, particularly in countries like Mexico, where rich biodiversity regions are also broadly inhabited.     

Annual Carbon Emissions from Deforestation in the Amazon Basin between 2000 and 2010

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) is considered one of the most cost-effective strategies for mitigating climate change. However, historical deforestation and emission rates―critical inputs for setting reference emission levels for REDD+―are poorly understood. Here we use multi-source, time-series satellite data to quantify carbon emissions from deforestation in the Amazon basin on a year-to-year basis between 2000 and 2010. We first derive annual deforestation indicators by using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Vegetation Continuous Fields (MODIS VCF) product. MODIS indicators are calibrated by using a large sample of Landsat data to generate accurate deforestation rates, which are subsequently combined with a spatially explicit biomass dataset to calculate committed annual carbon emissions. Across the study area, the average deforestation and associated carbon emissions were estimated to be 1.59 ± 0.25 M ha•yr⁻¹ and 0.18 ± 0.07 Pg C•yr⁻¹ respectively, with substantially different trends and inter-annual variability in different regions. Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon increased between 2001 and 2004 and declined substantially afterwards, whereas deforestation in the Bolivian Amazon, the Colombian Amazon, and the Peruvian Amazon increased over the study period. The average carbon density of lost forests after 2005 was 130 Mg C•ha⁻¹, ~11% lower than the average carbon density of remaining forests in year 2010 (144 Mg C•ha⁻¹). Moreover, the average carbon density of cleared forests increased at a rate of 7 Mg C•ha⁻¹•yr⁻¹ from 2005 to 2010, suggesting that deforestation has been progressively encroaching into high-biomass lands in the Amazon basin. Spatially explicit, annual deforestation and emission estimates like the ones derived in this study are useful for setting baselines for REDD+ and other emission mitigation programs, and for evaluating the performance of such efforts.     

Human capital, wealth, and nutrition in the Bolivian Amazon

We analyze anthropometric variables of a society of forager-horticulturalists in the Bolivian Amazon (Tsimane') in 2001-2002. Community variables (e.g., inequality, social capital) explain little of the variance in anthropometric indices of nutritional status, but individual-level variables (schooling, wealth) are positively correlated with nutritional status. Dietary quality (foods high in animal proteins), access to foraging technology, and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants are related to better anthropometric indices.     

潮安县凤凰镇"猪-沼-茶"生态农业模式的结构与效益研究

对潮安县“猪-沼-茶”生态农业模式的结构及其功能效益进行了案例调查与研究分析。“猪-沼-茶”生态农业模式是以种茶为中心,以沼气和沼渣为纽带,综合发展种植业和养殖业的一种生态模式。这种模式可提高茶叶品质,节约生产成本;改善茶园生态环境和提高土壤肥力,具有较好的经济效益、生态效益和社会效益。这种模式适合于我国南方丘陵山区推广应用。     

2.5D Morphogenesis: modeling landuse and landcover dynamics in the Ecuadorian Amazon

The Ecuadorian Amazon, lying in the headwaters of the Napo and Aguarico River valleys, is experiencing rapid change in Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) conditions and regional landscape diversity uniquely tied to the spontaneous agricultural colonization of the Oriente region of northeastern Ecuador beginning in the mid to late 1970s. Spontaneous colonization occurred on squattered lands located adjacent to oil company roads and in government development sectors composed of multiple 50 ha land parcels organized into `piano key' shaped family farms or fincas. Portions of these fincas were deforested for agricultural extensification depending upon the age of the finca and several site and situation factors. Because fincas are managed at the household level as spatially discrete, temporally independent units, land conversion at the finca-level is recognized as the chief proximate cause of deforestation within the region.Focusing on the spatial and temporal dynamics of deforestation, agricultural extensification, and plant succession at the finca-level, and urbanization at the community-level, a cell-based morphogenetic model of Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) was developed as the foundation for a predictive model of regional LULCC dynamics and landscape diversity. Here, LULC characteristics are determined using a time-series of remotely sensed data (i.e., Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Multispectral Scanner (MSS)) using an experimental [semi-traditional] (hybrid unsupervised-supervised) classification scheme resulting in a time-series data set including LULC images for 1973, 1986, 1989, 1996, and 1999. Pixel histories of LULC type across the time-series were integrated into LULC trajectories and converted into seed or input data sets for LULC modeling to alternate time periods and for model validation. LULC simulations, achieved through cellular automata (CA) methodologies, were run on an annual basis to the year 2010 using 1973 as the initial conditions and the satellite time-series as the `check points' in the simulations. The model was developed using the Imagine Spatial Modeler of the ERDAS image processing software, and enhanced using the Spatial Modeler Language (SML). The model works by (a) simulating the present by extrapolating from the past using the image time-series, (b) validating the simulations via the remotely sensed time-series of past conditions and through field observations of current conditions, (c) allowing the model to iterate to the year 2010, and (d) comparing model outputs to an autoregressive time-series approach for annual conditions that are compared via paired t-tests of pattern metrics run at the landscape-level to define compositional and structural differences between successive model outputs.     

Natural controls and human impacts on stream nutrient concentrations in a deforested region of the Brazilian Amazon basin

This study documents regional patterns in stream nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the Brazilian state of Rondônia in the southwestern Amazon basin, and interprets the patterns as functions of watershed soil properties, deforestation extent, and urban population density. The survey includes 77 different locations sampled in the dry and wet seasons, with a watershed size range from 1.8 to 33,000km² over a total area of approximately 140,000km². A sequential regression technique is used to separate the effects of natural watersheds properties and anthropogenic disturbance on nutrients and chloride. Natural variation in soil texture explains most of the variance in stream nitrate concentrations, while deforestation extent and urban population density explain most of the variance in stream chloride (Cl) and total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) concentrations. Stream TDN, total dissolved phosphorus (TDP), particulate phosphorus (PP) and Cl concentrations all increase non-linearly with deforestation extent in the dry season after controlling for natural variability due to soil type. Stream nutrient and Cl disturbances are observed only in watersheds more than 66–75% deforested (watershed area range 2–300km²), suggesting stream nutrient concentrations are resistant to perturbation from vegetation conversion below a 66–75% threshold. In heavily deforested watersheds, stream Cl shows the largest changes in concentration (12±6 times forested background), followed by TDP (2.3±1.5), PP (1.9±0.8) and TDN (1.7±0.5). Wet season signals in Cl and TDP are diluted relative to the dry season, and no land use signal is observed in wet season TDN, PN, or PP. Stream TDN and TDP concentrations in non-urban watersheds both correlate with stream Cl, suggesting that sources other than vegetation and soil organic matter contribute to enhanced nutrient concentrations. Small, urbanized watersheds (5–20km²) have up to 40 times the chloride and 10 times the TDN concentrations of forested catchments in the dry season. Several large watersheds (1000–3000km²) with urban populations show higher Cl, TDN and TDP levels than any small pasture watershed, suggesting that human impacts on nutrient concentrations in large river systems may be dominated by urban areas. Anthropogenic disturbance of dry-season stream Cl and TDN is detectable in large streams draining deforested and urbanized watersheds up to 33,000km². We conclude that regional deforestation and urbanization result in changes in stream Cl, N and P concentrations at wide range of scales, from small pasture streams to large river systems.     

Rural Livelihoods and Burning Practices in Savanna Landscapes of Nusa Tenggara Timur,Eastern Indonesia

Substantial attention has been given in recent years to forest and peatland degradation, transboundary haze, and biodiversity and economic impacts associated with major fire events in perhumid western Indonesia. Conversely, little information is available concerning underpinning conditions associated with burning practices and resultant fire patterns in other parts of the Indonesian archipelago, especially in markedly seasonally dry regions. As part of a broader study examining the patterning and drivers of burning in the monsoonal province of Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT), the paper explores cultural, socioeconomic, biophysical, and, in discussion, political dimensions associated with landscape-scale patterns of burning at each of two village locations on the islands of Sumba and Flores. Assembled data illustrate that: (1) study villages are reliant on a range of subsistence agricultural activities, particularly annual food crops, livestock (especially pigs), and forest products; (2) while villages encompass mostly extensive areas of grassland savanna, proportionately most income/products are derived from limited areas of arable agricultural and very diminished forested lands; (3) despite this, considerable economic potential exists for developing certain tree products especially in agro-forestry settings, and more intensive livestock management; (4) these patterns are representative generally of surrounding regional agricultural landscapes. While burning is used as an essential agricultural management tool in defined seasonal contexts in all study villages, the reality is that today much burning is unmanaged and uncontrolled, with attendant significant economic impacts. As for western Indonesia, underlying drivers of such behavior are multiple and complex, but pointedly include: rapid societal change; conflicts within and between villages, and between villages and regulatory authorities (especially the Forestry Department), over access to land and resources; and continued nonrecognition in national and provincial fire policy frameworks of the practical necessity for using fire (wisely and safely) in many agricultural contexts. It is axiomatic that, without effective fire management and a supportive policy environment, sustainable livelihoods development will continue to be elusive in fire-prone savanna landscapes of eastern Indonesia.     

Space,Time, Rhetoric and Agricultural Change in the Transition Zone of Ghana

This paper examines change within farming systems in the Brong Ahafo Region in Ghana, and the impact of agricultural modernization and mechanization on the regional economy and local farming systems. It combines anthropological, historical, and remote sensing techniques to document changes in farming practice and land use and land cover. It argues that change is not the product of simple evolutionary sequences of responses to population pressures or adoption of modern technologies, but arises out of a complex set of factors interacting within wider regional economies, which are increasingly commodified and commercialized and subject to global market pressures. These include technical, institutional, market, movements of labor, and transport infrastructure development dimensions, which often create new opportunities for local farmers other than those envisaged in agricultural development policies. Tracing the opening up of the transition zone over the last 40–50 years through the development of state farms and mechanized synthetic agriculture, the paper examines the changing fortunes of farming systems within a radius of 30–40 km from agricultural technology hubs and the implications for models of agricultural development.

Assessing Local Knowledge of Game Abundance and Persistence of Hunting Livelihoods in the Bolivian Amazon Using Consensus Analysis

We used cultural consensus models to test whether hunters shared perceptions of wildlife abundance and the relative importance of hunting and fishing in a Guarayo indigenous community in the Bolivian Amazon. Results show that highly prized animals that were considered rare are either those with lower reproductive rates and more sensitivity to land use changes and harvest (white-lipped peccary and spider monkey) or those with marked seasonal distribution patterns (barred sorubim and tiger-fish). Rapidly reproducing and resilient species (agouti and armored catfish) were perceived as abundant. More tapirs and red brocket deer were present than predicted by scientific models possibly because hunters were harvesting these species in new forest management areas. Residents identified hunting and fishing among their most important livelihood activities, recognized bush meat and fish as basic food resources, and expected wildlife harvests to be part of their future livelihoods, although market-based livelihoods and domestic replacements for bush meat were reported.     

Comparing the sustainability of different action policy possibilities: Application to the issue of both household survival and forest preservation in the corridor of Fianarantsoa

A sustainability issue for the rain forest in the corridor of Fianarantsoa (Madagascar) is to preserve the forest while ensuring the development of the local population. The aim of this paper is to determine whether the current situation is sustainable or not according to different action policy possibilities. We propose a general procedure based on viability analysis: Translation of sustainability issues into constraints on the system state; elaboration of a mathematical model of system evolution rules in the form of controlled dynamical system; computations of the viability kernels according to different action policy possibilities. Among control variables, we focus on monetary transfer. Without monetary transfer, we show that the current situation of the rain forest corridor is not sustainable in our mathematical modeling framework. We then estimate the minimal maximal amount per year necessary to make the current situation sustainable.     

Biomass and primary-production of herbaceous plant communities in the Amazon floodplain

The increase in biomass of different aquatic and terrestrial herbaceous plant communities was measured during various growth periods in the Amazon floodplain near Manaus. Maximum biomass varied from 4–11.2 t ha^–1 dry weight in mixed annual terrestrial communities to 6–23 t ha^–1 in aquatic annual species (Paspalum repens, Oryza perennis, Luziola spruceana and Hymenachne amplexicaulis) and 15.6–57.6 t ha^–1 in communities of the perennial species Paspalum fasciculatum. Cumulative biomass of 3 successively growing annual species reached 30 t ha^–1 a^–1. Net primary production is considerably higher than maximum biomass. Paspalum fasciculatum reached 70 t during a growth period of 8 months. If one considers for annual species a monthly loss of 10–25% of the biomass, then net primary production in areas with three successive macrophyte communities and a cumulative maximum biomass of 30 t ha^–1 is estimated to reach up to 50 t ha^–1 a^–1. Annual P/B ratio may reach about 3.     

In vitro development of bovine secondary follicles in two- and three-dimensional culture systems using vascular endothelial growth factor,insulin-like growth factor-1, and growth hormone

The aim of this study was to evaluate the development and estradiol production of isolated bovine secondary follicles in two-dimensional (2D, experiment 1) and three-dimensional (3D using alginate, experiment 2) long-term culture systems in the absence (control group; only α-MEM⁺) or presence of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), insulin-like growth factor-1, or GH alone, or a combination of all. A total of 363 isolated secondary follicles were cultured individually for 32 days at 38.5 °C in 5% CO₂ in a humidified incubator with addition of medium (5 μL) every other day. In 2D culture system, follicular growth and antrum formation rates were higher (P < 0.05) in VEGF treatment compared with the other treatments. In 3D culture system, only estradiol concentration was greater (P < 0.05) in the GH than in the control group, whereas the other end points were similar (P > 0.05). In summary, this study demonstrated that the benefits of using a certain type of medium supplement depended on the culture system (2D vs. 3D). Vascular endothelial growth factor was an effective supplement for the in vitro culture of bovine secondary follicles when the 2D culture system was used, whereas GH only affected estradiol production using the 3D culture system. This study sheds light on advancements in methodology to facilitate subsequent studies on bovine preantral follicle development.     

Disturbance Level Determines the Regeneration of Commercial Tree Species in the Eastern Amazon

The effects of reduced‐impact logging (RIL) on the regeneration of commercial tree species were investigated, as long‐term timber yields depend partly on the availability of seedlings in a managed forest. On four occasions during a 20‐month period in the Tapajós National Forest (Eastern Amazon, Brazil), seven commercial tree species were assessed as follows: the long‐lived pioneers Bagassa guianensis and Jacaranda copaia; the partially shade‐tolerant Hymenaea courbaril, Dipteryx odorata, and Carapa guianensis; and the totally shade‐tolerant Symphonia globulifera and Manilkara huberi. In 2439 10 × 10 m plots, all individuals < 20 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) were assessed over three intervals, before, during, and after the forest being logged. Before logging, the density of seedlings and saplings of the seven species did not change. Logged trees were spatially aggregated, with 9.2 percent of the plots being heavily impacted by logging. After logging, the recruitment rate increased more than the mortality rate, so that post‐harvesting densities of seedlings and saplings increased. The increase in density was concentrated in logged plots with more disturbances. It is concluded that post‐harvesting heterogeneity of micro‐environments created by RIL may be an important component to be taken into account for sustainable forest management and conservation of commercial species.