Survival of brown kiwi (

Brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) in central Northland have been monitored for up to 32 months of sustained exposure to brodifacoum poison. The cereal baits were placed in bait stations to target brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Annual survival of 55 radio-tagged adult kiwi in two poisoned forest patches has been high (95.9%), and similar to that in two nearby unpoisoned forest patches and in the patches before poison was used (95.3%). The two adult birds tested of the four that died in the poisoned areas had no traces of brodifacoum at the detection limit of 0.05 mg kg(-1). With an improved detection limit of 0.02 mg kg(-1), no traces of brodifacoum were found in nine eggs collected over 18 months after adults were first exposed to the poison. Of four chicks tested (detection limit: 0.005 to 0.02 mg kg(-1)), that had apparently died of natural causes or were killed by predators, three contained traces of brodifacoum (0.01—0.18 mg kg(-1)). The median survival of 39 radio-tagged chicks in the poisoned areas (36 days) was significantly better than that of 18 chicks in untreated areas nearby (15 days). Kiwi chicks may be more vulnerable than adult kiwi to accidental poisoning because of physiological or behavioural differences; however, the effects of sustained exposure to low levels of brodifacoum poison may not be visible in the adult population for several years. At this stage of the ongoing study, the benefits to kiwi of this method of pest control outweigh the costs, because chick survival is greatly improved.     

The role of prey-generated sounds,vision, and echolocation in prey localization by the African batCardioderma cor (Megadermatidae)

Summary Cardioderma cor responded with head movements and flight toward speakers broadcasting calls of frogs and crickets which contained only sonic frequencies. Unlike the frog-eating bat,Trachops cirrhosus, they did not make contact with the speakers. Prey movements that generated sonic and ultrasonic sounds were both sufficient and necessary for the bats to localize and capture prey. Prey dragged across a glass sheet with a thin layer of water did not generate sounds and bats did not attempt to capture these prey, even with the availability of visual and echolocation cues. There was no evidence for the use of visual cues while hunting; bats did not localize prey more readily in light than darkness. Prey were presented such that their movements initially generated sounds, but then the prey moved onto the water layer of the glass sheet and sounds were eliminated. The bats emitted echolocation signals while hunting in this situation; however, the information from these signals was not utilized. The bats landed at the site that prey last made sound. These results demonstrate the importance of passive hearing for prey localization in this bat, and further suggest that when preygenerated sounds and echolocation signals offer conflicting information the bat's behavior is guided by the former.     

Association behaviour of the self-fertilizing Kryptolebias marmoratus (Poey): the influence of microhabitat use on the potential for a complex mating system

Preliminary observations were conducted to identify conspicuous body postures and movements of males and hermaphrodites in the mangrove killifish Kryptolebias marmoratus . These behaviours were used quantitatively to examine the social interactions for experimental pairings of K. marmoratus of different sexual states ( i.e. simultaneous hermaphrodite and male) in an aquarium with an open-water area and simulated crab burrows. This allowed observation of behaviours that could not be observed in the field. Kryptolebias marmoratus , regardless of sexual state and experimental treatment, spent 40% of the time in the burrow. Hermaphrodites exhibited a preference for associating with males rather than other hermaphrodites. The observed complexity of displayed behaviours and interactions between paired conspecifics indicate that K. marmoratus has a rich repertoire of social behaviour not predicted for a strictly selfing species. Also, land crab burrows play an important role in their social interactions.     

The effects of intraspecific competition on the prey capture behavior and kinematics of the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus

Competition has broad effects on fish and specifically the effects of competition on the prey capture kinematics and behavior are important for the assessment of future prey capture studies in bony fishes. Prey capture kinematics and behavior in bony fishes have been shown to be affected by temperature and satiation. The densities at which bony fish are kept have also been shown to affect their growth, behavior, prey selection, feeding and physiology. We investigated how density induced intraspecific competition for food affects the prey capture kinematics of juvenile bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. High speed video was utilized to film five bold individuals feeding at three different densities representing different levels of intraspecific competition. We hypothesized that: (1) the feeding kinematics will be faster at higher levels of competition compared to lower levels of competition, and (2) bluegill should shift from more suction-based feeding towards more ram-based feeding with increasing levels of competition in order to outcompete conspecifics for a prey item. We found that, with increased intraspecific competition, prey capture became faster, involving more rapid jaw opening and therefore greater inertial suction, shorter mouth closing times, and shorter gape cycles. Furthermore, the attack velocity of the fish increased with increasing competition, however a shift towards primarily ram based feeding was not confirmed. Our study demonstrates that prey capture kinematics are affected by the presence of conspecifics and future studies need to consider the effects of competition on prey capture kinematics.     

The breeding season of three species of kiwi (Apteryx) in captivity as determined from egg-laying dates

Records from kiwi ( Apteryx spp.) breeding centres were used to obtain laying dates of 403 North Island brown kiwi ( Apteryx australis mantelli ) eggs, 24 great spotted kiwi ( Apteryx haastii ) eggs and 25 little spotted kiwi ( Apteryx owenii ) eggs. North Island brown kiwi outdoors had an annual cycle of egg-laying with 88.5% of eggs laid from June to January. Eggs were laid in every month of the year, with fewest eggs in April (2.1 % of all eggs). The greatest number of eggs was laid in July (15.6% of all eggs), with a second peak of laying in October (13.5% of all eggs). Both the great spotted kiwi and little spotted kiwi had annual cycles of egg-laying, with the main egg-laying seasons being August-January (87.5% of eggs) for the former and July-December (96.0% of eggs) for the latter. The highest peaks of laying were in October and August, respectively. Kiwi eggs were considered to belong to the same clutch if they were laid no more than 40 days apart. Clutch size in the North Island brown and little spotted kiwi was most commonly one or two eggs. In the great spotted kiwi only clutches of one egg were found. The mean clutch size of North Island brown kiwi outdoors (1.51±0.05) did not differ from that of free-living North Island brown kiwi (1.33±0.09). Similarly, there was no difference in the mean clutch size of captive and free-living little spotted kiwi (1.39±0.14 and 1.10±0.07). The mean interval between eggs for kiwi outdoors did not differ between North Island brown kiwi and little spotted kiwi (27.4±0.5 and 30.7±1.8 days). The results indicate that all three species of kiwi maintain annual cycles of egg-laying in captivity, with the main egg-laying season being longer than in free-living birds.     

Dietary protein content affects the response of meadow voles, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microtus pennsylvanicus</Emphasis>, to over-marks

The response to signals, including scent marks, from opposite-sex conspecifics can be affected by the nutritional state of both the sender and receiver of these signals. Protein content of the diet affects how meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) respond to single scent marks, but it is unknown how it affects an individual’s response to the overlapping scent marks of two donors (an over-mark). In experiment 1, we tested the hypothesis that protein content of the diet affects the amount of time voles spend investigating the marks of the top- and bottom-scent donors of an over-mark. Males and females fed a 22% protein diet spent more time investigating the scent mark of the top-scent donor than that of the bottom-scent donor; voles fed 9% and 13% protein diets spent similar amounts of time investigating the top- and bottom-scent donors. In experiment 2, we tested the hypothesis that protein content of the diet of the top- and bottom-scent donors affects the amount of time conspecifics spend investigating their scent marks. Female voles spent more time investigating the mark of the top-scent male than that of the bottom-scent male, independent of the differences in protein content of the diets of the top- and bottom-scent donors. Male voles, however, spent more time investigating the top-scent female when she was fed a diet higher in protein content than that of the bottom-scent female. Our results are discussed within the context of the natural history of voles.     

Intraspecific parasitism and nest defence in the solitary pompilid wasp Anoplius viaticus (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

The nesting behaviour of individually marked female pompilid wasps, Anoplius viaticus , was observed at a Breckland heath site with particular emphasis on intraspecific parasitism and nest defence. Prey was stolen from conspecifics while it was being carried to the nest site, and while it was left unattended during nest construction. Females also appeared to brood parasitize each other's completed nests. Parasitism appeared to be opportunistic. Brood parasitism may be a tactic by which time-limited females can increase their fecundity. By placing prey in vegetation tufts during nest construction, females may reduce the risk of prey theft. An individual female's successive unicellular nests were clustered and therefore easier to defend, in many ways resembling a multicellular nest. Females defended their clusters vigorously, visiting them every few minutes during foraging and expelling conspecifics from the vicinity. This type of nest defence may be costly, and has rarely been observed in solitary wasps.     

Self-Grooming as a Tactic Used by Prairie Voles Microtus ochrogaster to Enhance Sexual Communication

Observations of numerous mammals suggest males self-groom more than females in response to the odours of opposite-sex conspecifics. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that self-grooming may be a tactic used by males to attract mates in prairie voles Microtus ochrogaster . In the first experiment, we measured the amounts of time voles self-groomed during exposure either to male-scented cotton bedding, female-scented cotton bedding, or clean cotton bedding. Results from this experiment support the hypothesis and also show that female prairie voles self-groom in response to odours of males. In addition, male prairie voles groom more in response to male odours than to female odours, suggesting that self-grooming also serves a role in male–male competition. In the second experiment, male and female voles spent more time investigating scent marks of opposite-sex conspecifics that recently self-groomed at a higher rate than those of opposite-sex conspecifics that self-groomed at a lower rate. Female, but not male prairie voles, spent more time investigating scent marks of opposite-sex conspecifics that self-groomed at a high rate than those of same-sex conspecifics that self-groomed at a high rate. For prairie voles, self-grooming may increase the detection of their scent marks by conspecifics. By self-grooming, prairie voles may be attempting to attract opposite-sex conspecifics, and males may also be attempting to deter encounters with male conspecifics.     

Role of predation in the decline of kiwi,

Kiwi have declined markedly in abundance and range since human settlement of New Zealand. Three of the four species are still extant in mainland forests, despite decades of co-existence with various introduced mammals. Little spotted kiwi is now probably confined to offshore islands. The role of introduced mammals in these population declines was evaluated by measuring the survival rates of adults, eggs and chicks of brown kiwi (A. mantelli) and great spotted kiwi (A. haastii) in mainland forests. Mortality rates of adults ranged from 5%-16% and did not differ significantly between species or sexes. Overall, 14 out of 209 adult kiwi died during 159.6 radio-tracking years. Predators definitely caused five of these deaths. Sixty-nine (68%) of 102 eggs from 77 nesting attempts by 48 pairs failed to hatch. Predators probably caused about 10% of egg failures. Only three of 49 chicks probably survived to adulthood, indicating a juvenile mortality rate of about 94%. Predators killed at least 8% of chicks, 45% of juveniles, and possibly as many as 60% of all young kiwi. Ferrets and dogs were the main predators of adult kiwi, possums and mustelids were the main egg predators, while stoats and cats were largely responsible for the deaths of young kiwi. Population models show that northern brown kiwi are currently declining at 5.8% per annum. This decline could be halted by cutting the current predation rates on young kiwi by about 34% to 33%.     

Distribution, Population-Changes and Management of Brown Kiwi in Hawkes Bay

Historical and recent records indicate that kiwi are less numerous and widespread in Hawke's Bay than they used to be. The birds are still scattered throughout the ranges to the west and north of the region, usually at densities of about one bird per 100 ha. Kiwi have now almost completely disappeared from their former lowland habitats. The decline of kiwi in Hawke's Bay may have started before European settlement, but has been particularly rapid in the last 70 years. RePeat surveys of three populations between 1984 and 1990-91 indicate that the decline is continuing. The main cause is thought to be predation by cats and stoats on chicks and the accidental destruction of adults by possum hunters. Feral dogs may have been important earlier this century. Kiwi will not now survive in Hawke's Bay unless they are actively managed. We give several reasons why a population should be maintained within the region, despite the costs and effort of doing so, and identify the birds at Lake Waikaremoana in Urewera National Park as being the best ones to target.     

Temperature-dependent prey capture efficiency and foraging modes of brown trout Salmo trutta

Prey capture success and foraging mode were studied in brown trout Salmo trutta at temperatures ranging from 5.7 to 14.0° C. At low temperatures, there was a positive correlation between prey capture success and the proportion of time that the fish spent holding feeding stations. This correlation was not found at temperatures >10° C.     

Spatial organization of the North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli: sex, pairing status and territoriality

In Waitangi State Forest, 51 North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli were tagged with radio transmitters and observed for an average of 2.3 months. All females and the majority of males were paired and maintained territories of 6.7 and 5.5 ha, respectively. Territories overlapped widely between partners but only narrowly with those of paired neighbours. Unpaired males had territories of 12.8 ha and extensively overlapped those of paired males. Territories were maintained by long distance calls and rare aggressive encounters. Males were more territorial than females. Within pairs, males called 1.5 times more often than females and initiated most pair calls. 60% of female calls were responses to their mates. Observers could often induce aggressive behaviour (calling, fast approach) in male kiwi (by playback, for example) but hardly ever in females. Kiwi territoriality cannot be explained by the distribution and availability of food and shelter sites, but seems to serve mainly a reproductive function.     

Effects of the toxic dinoflagellate, Alexandrium fundyense on three species of larval fish: a food-chain approach

Sublethal behavioural effects of exposure to paralytic shellfish toxins (PST; saxitoxin and its derivatives) from the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense were investigated in newly settled winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus , larval sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon variegatus and larval mummichog Fundulus heteroclitus through an A. fundyense –copepod–fish food chain. Consumption of as few as six to 12 toxin-containing copepods was lethal to the fishes. After consuming fewer toxin-containing copepods, all three fish species exhibited sublethal effects from vector-mediated exposure. Prey-capture ability of mummichogs was reduced in larvae that had consumed toxic copepods, Coullana canadensis . After consuming toxic C. canadensis or mixed copepods, mummichog larvae had reduced swimming performance. Swimming activity was also significantly reduced in winter flounder after consuming toxic copepods, including time spent in motion and distance travelled. Prey capture and predator avoidance were reduced in first-feeding sheepshead minnow larvae that had consumed toxic dinoflagellate cells. Adverse effects on prey capture or predator avoidance may reduce larval survival and facilitate the transmission of PST through the food web. This study provides baseline information on sublethal effects of PST exposure on fishes using a novel food-chain approach with zooplankton as vectors.     

Nuclear microsatellite DNA markers for New Zealand kiwi (Apteryx spp.)

Kiwi (Apterygidae) is an endemic New Zealand avian family comprising five species whose conservation is actively managed. We present five polymorphic microsatellite DNA loci isolated from North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). In addition, we demonstrate cross‐amplification, and in some cases, polymorphism, of these microsatellite DNA loci in four other kiwi species. Therefore, these markers may be broadly applicable to conservation genetic studies within this family.     

Modelling chlorophyll fluorescence of kiwi fruit (Actinidia deliciosa)

Kiwi fruit displays chlorophyll fluorescence. A physical model was developed to reproduce the observed original fluorescence for the whole fruit, from the emission of the different parts of the kiwi fruit. The spectral distribution of fluorescence in each part of the fruit, was corrected to eliminate distortions due to light re-absorption and it was analyzed in relation to photosystem II-photosystem I ratio. Kiwi fruit also displays variable chlorophyll-fluorescence, similar to that observed from leaves. The maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II photochemistry (F(v)/F(m)), the quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Φ(PSII)), and the photochemical and non-photochemical quenching coefficients (q(P) and q(NP) respectively) were determined and discussed in terms of the model developed. The study was extended by determining the photosynthetic parameters as a function of the storage time, at both 4 °C and room temperature for 25 days.     

近亲幽灵蛛用于兼性群居生活的时间消耗

所谓近亲幽灵蛛（Pholcus affinis）的兼性群居生活,是指他们可以单独生活,也可以几个个体共栖于一张网上成为一组。本文使用焦点动物追踪法,研究不同大小的组（指组内个体数量多少）、不同年龄阶段的蜘蛛在组内生活中用于“消耗性”行为（移动、织网、弹跳、拨丝或种内相互作用）的时间耗费。主要结论包括：蜘蛛的年龄和组的大小影响组内成员的付出。在不同大小的组里,2～3龄幼蛛（S型）、亚成体或成体（L型）用在“消耗性”行为上所用的时间百分率没有显著性差异,但4～5龄幼蛛（M型）随着组内成员的增多而要花费更多的时间。当组内个体数量超过3个,L型和M型蜘蛛之间有着更多的相互作用,而S型蜘蛛不论组内个体多少,其个体之间相互作用都很少。研究结果同时显示,近亲幽灵蛛在不同发育阶段有不同的群居生活策略。     

The attraction trick: males in early stages of disease become more chemically attractive to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) females

In aquatic systems, olfaction plays an important role in acquiring information about the social environment and influences important behaviours in various contexts, including predator avoidance, foraging, aggressive and reproductive behaviour and mate selection. As the presence of diseases might modify individual odour, fish may use the variability in conspecifics’ odours as an indicator of the health status and infectious load of potential mates. Here, female Nile tilapia were tested for their ability to detect infected males and discriminate between bacterial infected and uninfected individuals by means of chemical cues. Females were allowed to choose between the odours of males infected by Aeromonas hydrophila bacteria and uninfected males. The findings show that female Nile tilapia initially showed a preference for infected males in terms of their first choice in a dichotomous choice test, but the total duration of time spent with the stimulus from infected males was not longer than that for the uninfected males. This may indicate that males at early stages of infection, i.e., without advanced clinical signs of infection, emit odours that allow them to enjoy the benefits of socialization when the infection is not yet detected by conspecifics. Thus, in the context of reproduction, males might attract female partners and have some chance of reproducing, before being avoided.     

The effect of forest clear-cutting on habitat use in Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis>) in Shennongjia Nature Reserve,China

The habitat use of two groups of Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) was observed, using the focal group method, for 7 months in four seasons from June 2000 to October 2001. The habitats were classed into primary forest and three successional habitats: after clear-cutting: grassland, shrub forest and young forest. The results showed that the large group of monkeys had larger range areas than the small group in the same season. Both groups had larger range sizes in summer or autumn than in winter or spring. They spent most of their time using primary forest and young forest, rarely used shrub forest and did not use grassland. In each season, they used the habitats non-randomly and preferred primary forest. The preference order of habitats for both groups every season was the same: primary forest > young forest > shrub forest grassland. The results suggested that primary forest was high-quality habitat and should be conserved as a top priority. Clear-cutting would cause habitat loss and habitat fragmentation, and should therefore be prohibited. High-quality habitat for the monkeys is difficult to restore from clear-cutting.