Bidwill of the Bunya‐Bunya

The work of John Bidwill, first director of the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, is discussed with particular reference to his connections with William and Joseph Hooker, notably his early collecting in New Zealand and the living plants sent to and from Kew – especially Araucaria bidwillii – and his pioneering hybridising of ornamental plants.     

Elevational parallels of latitudinal variation in the proportion of lianas in woody floras

Aim  To determine if elevational variation in the proportion of lianas in woody floras parallels the variation observed on latitudinal gradients. This is to be expected if the poleward decrease in the importance of lianas is related to the vulnerability of their wide vessels to freeze embolism.
Location  Coastal ranges of south-central Chile (latitude 37°–40° S) and western South Island of New Zealand (41°–43° S).
Methods  The presence of all woody species was recorded in plots of 2500 m² (Chile) or 100–400 m² (New Zealand) on four elevational gradients in temperate rain forest. Each species was classified as a tree, shrub or liana. Original data were obtained from 22 plots at two sites in Chile. In New Zealand, two surveys comprising a total of 296 plots were extracted from the National Vegetation Survey data base.
Results  Liana species richness declined more or less monotonically on all four gradients, whereas richness of trees and shrubs showed more varied elevational patterns. The proportion of woody species contributed by the liana life-form was negatively correlated with elevation on all four gradients, falling from 15 to 35% of the woody flora at c . 200 m a.s.l. to nil well below the tree line. The elevational and latitudinal limits of liana species were marginally significantly correlated in Chile, but not in New Zealand.
Main conclusions  The elevational parallel of the well-documented decline in liana representation with increasing latitude is consistent with the hypothesis that cold intolerance is a strong control on the global distribution of the liana life-form.     

Introduction to the Nigel Barlow Symposium

Dr Nigel Barlow died on 4 June 2003 aged 53 in Christchurch, New Zealand. Nigel completed his PhD at the University of East Anglia in 1977 and emigrated to New Zealand in 1979 where he worked initially at Palmerston North and for the last 12 years for AgResearch at Lincoln. Nigel made an enormous contribution to New Zealand ecological science through the use of mathematically based models. In particular, he worked on insect pests such as grass grubs and vertebrate pests such as possums and rabbits, producing over 130 papers. Nigel’s models of bovine tuberculosis underpinned the current strategies and expenditure of over $50 million each year on the control of wildlife vectors on this disease. Nigel’s capabilities as a scientist were not only in the applied field but also reflected in his ability to win funds with his student John Kean from the prestigious Marsden Fund for basic research on the causes of rarity. He was Editor of the New Zealand Journal of Ecology from 1985 to 1990 and of the Journal of Applied Ecology. Nigel was awarded the New Zealand Ecological Society Award for his outstanding contribution to applied ecology in 1996 and posthumously in 2003 the Caughley Medal for lifetime contributions to wildlife management and ecology by the Australasian Wildlife Management Society. Nigel was a true polymath and enthusiast about all natural history. He had an interest in bird-winged butterflies and regularly vanished into the jungles of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea to study them. He was fascinated by crocodilians and anacondas, mountain climbing, landscape painting, and malt whisky. At work he was resistant to bureaucratic interference but happy to pass on his abilities and insights to his students and numerous colleagues.     

Seeking healing transnationally: Australians,John of God and Brazilian Spiritism

João de Deus (John of God) is a Brazilian faith healer who has become increasingly well‐known outside Brazil. In 2006 alone he was invited to conduct healing events in Germany, the United States of America and New Zealand. He returned to the United States of America and New Zealand in 2007, and in 2008 was once again in the United States of America. There are plans for him to come to Australia in the near future. This article is based on ethnographic research conducted in Brazil, New Zealand and Australia and on interviews with Australians in Sydney. Here, I explore the stories of Australian followers of John of God and their reasons for seeking his healing system. I argue that Western New Age and alternative medicine concepts of healing produce a disposition ( Bourdieu 1972 ) towards ‘traditional’ healing from exotic lands. I show that the reinstatement of a connection between healing and religion, the construction of context that gives meaning to illness, and empowerment through surrendering to a higher power are three important factors that help to explain why people shun Western medicine in favour of alternative practices.     

Breeding and survival of New Zealand Pigeons Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae

The breeding and survival of New Zealand Pigeons Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae were studied by radiotelemetry at three contrasting native forest sites in the North and South Islands of New Zealand. At each site, mean annual productivity was low (0-0.12 fledglings/adult) in relation to the mean annual rate of adult mortality (0.18-0.53). Losses of eggs and chicks to introduced mammals were the main identified causes of nest failure. Causes of adult mortality included episodic predation by introduced mammals and apparent starvation in spring at one site. At the most intensively-studied site (Pelorus Bridge), where 75 birds were radiotagged over 7 years, there was a marked annual variation in breeding success (0-0.3 fledglings/adult), including one season (1986–1987) when no breeding activity was detected at all. New Zealand Pigeons were legally hunted in the past, but our results indicate that harvesting is unlikely to be sustainable under current ecological conditions.     

Trees and shrubs of New Zealand

Poole. A. L. & Adams, N. M. 1994. Trees and shrubs of New Zealand. - Manaaki Whenua Press. Lincoln, New Zealand. ISBN 0–478–04535–2. 256 pages. Price: 30 USD     

Life history and production of Paranephrops zealandicus in a forest stream, with comments about the sustainable harvest of a freshwater crayfish

1. Life history and production were assessed for the crayfish Paranephrops zealandicus in three reaches of a headwater stream with a catchment of regenerating coniferous-broadleaf forest in the south-east of the South Island of New Zealand.
2. Crayfish density ranged from 3 to 4 m⁻² in riffles and 4–12 m⁻² in pools, depending on reach. Crayfish biomass (4–33 g AFDW m⁻²) and annual production (2–11 g AFDW m⁻²) were high compared with values reported elsewhere, while P:B ratio was low (0.33–0.43). This substantial production was dependent primarily upon high biomass rather than high growth rate.
3. The crayfish of this population rank amongst the longest lived and slowest growing ever recorded. Individuals estimated to be 16+ year of age were not uncommon. Females became reproductively active at 6+ year. Fewer than 4% of females carried eggs, and young remained attached to females for at least 15 months.
4. We propose that characteristics of this population are the consequence of a cool thermal regime (mean daily stream temperature = 7.0 °C, range 1.8–11.9 °C), and that low biomass turnover and poor reproductive rate precludes any sustainable commercial harvest of crayfish from streams in New Zealand with similar thermal regimes.     

Reconstructing spatial vulnerability to forest loss by fire in pre‐historic New Zealand

Aim Despite small and transient populations, early Māori transformed large areas of New Zealand's forest landscapes. We sought to isolate the biophysical predictors that explain forest loss in the pre‐historic (i.e. pre‐European) period in New Zealand. Location New Zealand. Methods We used resampled boosted regression trees to isolate the key predictors of forest loss from a suite of 19 topographic, climatic, soil‐related and archaeological predictors at a 1‐km spatial resolution across New Zealand. Results The key predictors of fire‐driven forest loss during New Zealand's pre‐history relate to moisture and elevation gradients, with sites characterized by low moisture levels and gentle slopes being most vulnerable. Proxies for human activity were important in the North Island, where Māori population densities were higher, but not the South Island. The predicted pattern of forest loss and its relationship with biophysical variables suggest that early Māori neither deliberately protected fire‐prone regions nor systematically burnt less fire‐prone ones. Main conclusions Before Māori settlement of New Zealand fire was naturally rare, despite biophysical conditions being conducive to fire spread. The introduction of an ignition source by humans made widespread forest loss inevitable, even in the absence of sustained and deliberate use of fire. Rapid forest loss at the time of human settlement is recurrent across eastern Polynesia, so understanding this dynamic in New Zealand has implications for the region as a whole.     

Brood-parasitism by the Shining Cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidus at Kaikoura, New Zealand

For three seasons starting in 1976 I studied the breeding of Shining Cuckoos Chrysococcyx lucidus in forest near Kaikoura, New Zealand. There is no evidence that the cuckoo parasitizes any host on mainland New Zealand other than the Grey Warbler Gerygone igata. A nestling cuckoo returned to within 1 km of its natal site in a subsequent breeding season, presumably after migrating beyond New Zealand. Empirical and theoretical estimates of the area occupied by Shining Cuckoos while breeding are given. Cuckoos near Kaikoura laid during ten weeks, the modal week of laying following seven weeks after the presumed peak of arrival of birds in New Zealand. First clutches of the host escaped parasitism because they were laid before most cuckoos arrived. Parasitized clutches received one cuckoo egg which replaced a host's egg. It was laid before, just after or long after the host began incubating, and mimicry was lacking. Cuckoo eggs, which were about 8% of the adult cuckoo's weight, hatched in 14–17 days. The frequency of parasitism near Kaikoura was 55% of late clutches (n = 40).
At 3–7 days old, nestling Shining Cuckoos evicted from the nest all other contents. The nestling period was at least 19 days. Growth in weight followed a logistic curve and the equation is given. Just over half the cuckoo eggs produced fledglings. The effect of brood-parasitism on the Grey Warbler's productivity was small. Only 17% of late warbler eggs, and late eggs only, were prevented by parasitism from yielding fledglings. Late laying by some Shining Cuckoos (relative to the host's incubational cycle), and late eviction, often led to brief inter-specific competition among nestlings for food. The brief coexistence of young Warblers and Cuckoos in the nest may explain the apparent mimicry by newly-hatched Shining Cuckoos of the host's young.     

Mangrove Forest and Soil Development on a Rapidly Accreting Shore in New Zealand

Mangrove forests are rapidly expanding their distribution in New Zealand, which is at the southern limit of their range. We investigated how these expanding mangrove forests develop through time. We assessed patterns in forest structure and function at the Firth of Thames, which is a rapidly accreting mangrove site in New Zealand where 1 km of mangrove of Avicennia marina has established seaward since the 1950s. Across the intertidal region, mangrove forest structure was highly variable. We used bomb-pulse radiocarbon dating to age the forest. Two major forest establishment events were identified; one in 1978–1981 and another in 1991–1995. These events coincided with sustained El Niño activity and are likely the result of reduced wind and wave energy at the site during these periods. We used the two forests of different ages to assess whether mangroves in New Zealand mature at similar rates as other mangroves and whether they conform to classic models of succession. The timing of forest maturation is similar in New Zealand as in more tropical locations with trees exhibiting features of mature forests as they age from about 10 to about 30 years. In older forest (~30 years old) trees become larger and stands more homogenous than in the younger forest (~10 years old). Carbon and nutrient concentrations in soils increased and soils become more aerobic in older forest compared to younger forest. Additionally, using fertilization experiments, we established that despite reduced growth rates in older forests, nitrogen remained limiting to growth in both older and young forests. However, in contrast to classic successional models leaf tissue nutrient concentrations and nutrient conservation (nutrient resorption from senescence leaf tissue) were similar in forests of differing ages and did not vary with fertilization. We conclude that mangrove forest expansion in New Zealand is influenced by climatic factors. Mangrove forests mature rapidly, even at the limits of their range and they satisfy many of the successional patterns predicted by Odum (1969) for the early stages of forest succession.     

Genetic differentiation of starling (Sturnus vulgaris: Aves) populations in New Zealand and Great Britain

Several hundred starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) were introduced to New Zealand from Great Britain during1860–1880. Allozymic variation at 24 loci was analysed in winter populations sampled at six localities in each country. New Zealand samples had fewer alleles per locus but the same mean heterozygosity (3% per locus) and proportion of polymorphic loci as did British samples. Winter populations in Britain contain European migrants and were genetically homogeneous. Paradoxically, genetic distances among derived New Zealand populations, and between New Zealand and Great Britain were much greater, similar in magnitude to those observed among allopatric populations in other avian species. The geographical pattern of genetic variation in New Zealand suggests that reproductive isolation of populations and random drift have contributed to the development of population differentiation.     

A SINE of restricted gene flow across the Alpine Fault: phylogeography of the New Zealand common skink (Oligosoma nigriplantare polychroma)

New Zealand has experienced a complex climatic and geological history since the Pliocene. Thus, identifying the processes most important in having driven the evolution of New Zealand's biota has proven difficult. Here we examine the phylogeography of the New Zealand common skink ( Oligosoma nigriplantare polychroma ) which is distributed throughout much of New Zealand and crosses many putative biogeographical boundaries. Using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, we revealed five geographically distinct lineages that are highly differentiated (pairwise Φ_ST 0.54–0.80). The phylogeographical pattern and inferred age of the lineages suggests Pliocene mountain building along active fault lines promoted their divergence 3.98–5.45 million years ago. A short interspersed nuclear element (SINE) polymorphism in the myosin gene intron ( MYH-2 ) confirmed a pattern of restricted gene flow between lineages on either side of the mountain ranges associated with the Alpine Fault that runs southwest to northeast across the South Island of New Zealand. An analysis of molecular variance confirmed that ~40% of the genetic differentiation in O. n. polychroma is distributed across this major fault line. The straits between the main islands of New Zealand accounted for much less of the variation found within O. n. polychroma , most likely due to the repeated existence of landbridges between islands during periods of the Pleistocene that allowed migration. Overall, our findings reveal the relative roles of different climatic and geological processes, and in particular, demonstrate the importance of the Alpine Fault in the evolution of New Zealand's biota.     

Cephaloziella tahora Bever. & Glenny,a new species of Cephaloziella (Jungermanniopsida,Cephaloziellaceae) from eastern Taranaki,New Zealand

Cephaloziella tahora, a new species of Cephaloziella is described and illustrated from a lowland forest habitat in eastern Taranaki in the North Island of New Zealand. It has similarities to six other New Zealand species of Cephaloziella, and appears closest in New Zealand to Cephaloziella aenigmatica R.M.Schust. It is defined by a unique combination of features and distinguished from C. aenigmatica and other New Zealand species by having entire, distant leaves that reach the dorsal stem mid-line, and have large conspicuous hemispherical and hemi-ellipsoidal papillae, underleaves on gemmiparous and gynoecial shoots, and by its dioecy. The addition brings the number of New Zealand species of Cephaloziella to 18, 12 of which are endemic to New Zealand.     

Ground Beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in Forest Fragments of the Manawatu, New Zealand: Collapsed Assemblages?

Botanically diverse and well-maintained, protected forest fragments in the Manawatu area of the North Island of New Zealand contained very species-poor carabid assemblages. In a nearby large forest tract, the potential source area, nine species were caught in pitfall traps, while the largest forest remnant had two species, and a well-managed suburban forest patch had three species but only one with a potentially reproducing population. Lack of grazing and high botanical diversity was insufficient to maintain the potential carabid assemblage in these fragments. Predation risk and a low dispersal power in endemic New Zealand ground beetles, combined with fragment size and degree of isolation could contribute to this collapse. Active management of ground-active invertebrate species seems necessary to protect them in isolated forest fragments in New Zealand.     

Phylogeny recapitulates geography, or why New Zealand has so many species of skinks

The evolutionary history of 25 New Zealand scincid lizards in the endemic genera Oligosoma and Cyclodina was examined using 12S rRNA sequence data. Phylogenetic resolution was poor, despite there being up to 9% sequence divergence between taxa. Lack of resolution was not attributable to biases in the data, such as site saturation or differences in sites free to vary, so we infer that New Zealand skinks underwent two relatively rapid phases of divergence. The rate of substitution for the skink sequences appears to be similar to some bird and mammal groups for which times of divergence have been estimated. Using fhese calibrations diversification of Oligosoma skinks probably began at least 23 million years ago (Mya). The pattern of relationships and the timing of this diversification are interpreted as resulting from rapid allopatric speciation during the Oligocene (25–35 Mya) when New Zealand was fragmented into many low lying islands. A second major phase of speciation involving the Cyclodina seems to have occurred during the Miocene (15–24 Mya), probably as a consequence of increasing land area and habitat diversity. This pattern of skink evolution contrasts with the Oligocene 'environmental crisis' hypodiesis of Cooper & Cooper (Proc. R. Soc. Land. B. 261, 293–302), but can be attributed to differences in the ecology of different taxa. This can be tested by examination of other groups, such as land snails and geckos. The large number of lizard species in New Zealand can be considered a legacy both of past geography as well as the absence of small mammals which would have been both competitors and predators.     

The abundance,distribution and structural characteristics of tree‐holes in Nothofagus forest,New Zealand

Tree‐holes provide an important microhabitat that is used for feeding, roosting and breeding by numerous species around the world. Yet despite their ecological importance for many of New Zealand's endangered species, few studies have investigated the abundance or distribution of tree‐holes in native forests. We used complementary ground and climbed tree surveys to determine the abundance, distribution and characteristics of tree‐holes in undisturbed Nothofagus forest in the Lewis Pass, New Zealand. We found that hole‐bearing trees were surprisingly abundant compared with many other studies, including Australian Eucalyptus species and American beech. In fact, we estimated as many as 3906 tree‐holes per hectare, of which 963 holes per hectare were potentially large enough to provide roost sites for hole‐nesting bats in New Zealand, while only eight holes per hectare were potentially suitable for specialist hole‐nesting birds. This was of great interest as primary cavity‐excavating animals are absent from New Zealand forests, compared with North America and Australia. Moreover, tree‐hole formation in New Zealand is likely to be dominated by abiotic processes, such as branch breakage from windstorms and snow damage. As has been found in many other studies, tree‐holes were not uniformly distributed throughout the forest. Tree‐holes were significantly more abundant on the least abundant tree species, Nothofagus fusca, than on either N. menziesii or N. solandri. In addition to tree species, tree size was also an important factor influencing the structural characteristics of tree‐holes and their abundance in this forest. Moreover, these trends were not fully evident without climbed tree surveys. Our results revealed that ground‐based surveys consistently underestimated the number of tree‐holes present on Nothofagus trees, and illustrate the importance of using climbed inspections where possible in tree‐hole surveys. We compare our results with other studies overseas and discuss how these are linked to the biotic and abiotic processes involved in tree‐hole formation. We consider the potential implications of our findings for New Zealand's hole‐dwelling fauna and how stand dynamics and past and future forest management practices will influence the structural characteristics of tree‐holes and their abundance in remnant forest throughout New Zealand.     

Chemical soil conditions in pristineNothofagus forests of New Zealand as compared to German forests

In many German forest soils low base saturation of CEC in deeper soil layers was reported and acidic deposition is seen as the major cause of these findings. To test this hypothesis we sampled 5 New Zealand forest soils from pristine beech (Nothofagus fusca, N. menziesii, N. solandri) sites under climatic and geological conditions comparable to higher elevations in Germany. The soils developed from granite and greywacke. Soil samples were analyzed for pH and the exchangeable cations were extracted with 1M NH₄Cl. The base saturation of all soil profiles was very low, even in deeper layers and was thus similar to the patterns found in many German forest soils. The pH was generally higher in the New Zealand soils as compared to Germany. The reason for the depletion of base cations in deeper soil layers of New Zealand forest soils is most likely the leaching of base cations with HCO₃ ^- resulting from the dissociation of carbonic acid in connection with high amounts of seepage. Thus, under high rainfall conditions, the low base saturation found in deeper layers of forest soils cannot exclusively be attributed to the effects of acidic depositions and land use. ei]Section editor: R F Huettl     

Phylogenetic relationships and character evolution in New Zealand and selected Australian Gnaphalieae (Compositae) inferred from morphological and anatomical data

Most of the estimated 70–80 species of New Zealand Gnaphalieae are endemic. Those of Anaphalioides , Ewartia , Helichrysum , Leucogenes , Rachelia and Raoulia belong to a putatively monophyletic group which is supported by analysis of nuclear ITS DNA sequences and is virtually confined to New Zealand. All species of Craspedia , Euchiton , Ozothamnus and Pseudognaphalium are excluded from this group. A phylogenetic analysis of 42 species of Gnaphalieae, using 57 morphological, anatomical and palynological characters, was conducted to test the monophyly of this group and to seek evidence of generic relationships. The analysis does not resolve basal relationships among the Gnaphalieae studied here. The putative monophyletic New Zealand group is not retrieved. Monophyly is supported for each of Euchiton , Leucogenes , the whipcord species of Helichrysum , the pulvinate species of Raoulia , and Raoulia subg. Raoulia (excluding the aberrant R. cinerea ), but not for Anaphalioides or Raoulia s.l. There are these two distinct groups in Raoulia s.l. but also a substantial number of isolated species. The sole New Zealand species of Ewartia is not a sister species to Australian Ewartia . The Australian species Ewartia planchonii is the sister species to Euchiton rather than to the other Australian species of Ewartia .  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 141 , 183–203.     

Protura in native and exotic forests in the North Island of New Zealand

Abstract

This study provides data on population and community ecology of Protura in native forests and Pinus radiata plantations in New Zealand. Abundance, age structure, sex ratios, biodiversity, and relationship with soil chemistry are discussed. Protura were significantly more abundant in pine plantations in comparison to native forests. Among native forests, Protura were most abundant under Southern beech (Nothofagus solandri). The abundance patterns may reflect the association between Protura and fungal communities in the soil. No correlation was found between soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorous, pH, cation exchange capacity, and the density of Protura. Protura assemblage composition was significantly related to forest type. New Zealand endemic species were associated with native forests; species with distribution outside New Zealand dominated in pine plantations. The distribution records within New Zealand were expanded for five species. The Protura fauna of New Zealand was increased to 18 species. Berberentulus capensis, Eosentomon australicum and Australentulus tillyardi are new records for New Zealand fauna.