Estimating regional population size and annual harvest intensity of the sooty shearwater in New Zealand

Abstract

Recent comprehensive survey data from multiple New Zealand offshore islands were combined with demographic population models to produce the first formal estimate of the total population of sooty shearwaters within New Zealand territory. We estimated the total population over 1994–2005 to be 21.3 (19.0–23.6) million individual birds in the New Zealand region. This population consisted of 12.8 (12.0–13.6) million adults, 2.8 (2.5–3.1) million chicks, and 4.4 (4.2–4.7) million breeding pairs. Breeding sooty shearwaters were concentrated primarily around the southern islands of New Zealand, with 53% breeding in the Titi Islands surrounding Rakiura (Stewart Island). Rakiura Maori muttonbirders were estimated to harvest 360 000 (320 000–400 000) sooty shearwaters per year, equivalent to 18% of the chicks produced in the harvested areas and 13% of chicks in the New Zealand region. Overall, 11% of the chicks within the Titi Islands live on unharvested ground. Systematic and widespread surveys of breeding colonies in South America are needed before a reliable global sooty shearwater population estimate can be calculated.     

Risk assessment of the gypsy moth, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lymantria dispar</Emphasis> (L), in New Zealand based on phenology modelling

The gypsy moth is a global pest that has not yet established in New Zealand despite individual moths having been discovered near ports. A climate-driven phenology model previously used in North America was applied to New Zealand. Weather and elevation data were used as inputs to predict where sustainable populations could potentially exist and predict the timing of hatch and oviposition in different regions. Results for New Zealand were compared with those in the Canadian Maritimes (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) where the gypsy moth has long been established. Model results agree with the current distribution of the gypsy moth in the Canadian Maritimes and predict that the majority of New Zealand’s North Island and the northern coastal regions of the South Island have a suitable climate to allow stable seasonality of the gypsy moth. New Zealand’s climate appears more forgiving than that of the Canadian Maritimes, as the model predicts a wider range of oviposition dates leading to stable seasonality. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of climate change on the predicted potential distribution for New Zealand. Climate change scenarios show an increase in probability of establishment throughout New Zealand, most noticeably in the South Island.     

Distribution and abundance of the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) L. in New Zealand, 1869–1973

An account is given of early liberations and the spread of hedgehogs throughout New Zealand between 1869 and 1973. Evidence, gathered largely from questionnaires and personal observations, is summarised in tables and maps to show the present range and abundance of the species. Hedgehogs dispersed from many points of liberation; their numbers increased dramatically in the South Island between 1910 and 1940, and in the North Island between 1920 and the 1950s. By the 1940s they had colonised most of the lowland areas, and their range had extended to the foot of the bushed mountainous regions; a few were found at altitudes of 2000 m. Since 1948 they have extended their range a little to include parts of the central volcanic plateau of the North Island, areas of inland Nelson, and northern Westland. Their numbers appear to have stabilised over the past 25 years. Today, hedgehogs are most abundant in intensively farmed lowland districts, towns, and suburbs. They become less numerous with increasing altitude, and few are encountered above 800 m or in wet, bushed areas. They are absent from areas where rainfall exceeds 250 cm/year or where more than 250 frosts occur annually. Factors limiting the abundance of hedgehogs in New Zealand are discussed.     

Disturbances prevent stem size-density distributions in natural forests from following scaling relationships

Enquist and Niklas propose that trees in natural forests have invariant size-density distributions (SDDs) that scale as a −2 power of stem diameter, although early studies described such distributions using negative exponential functions. Using New Zealand and ‘global’ data sets, we demonstrate that neither type of function accurately describes the SDD over the entire diameter range. Instead, scaling functions provide the best fit to smaller stems, while negative exponential functions provide the best fit to larger stems. We argue that these patterns are consistent with competition shaping the small-stem phase and exogenous disturbance shaping the large-stem phase. Mortality rates, estimated from repeat measurements on 1546 New Zealand plots, fell precipitously with stem size until 18 cm but remained constant after that, consistent with our arguments. Even in the small-stem phase, where SDDs were best described by scaling functions, the scaling exponents were not invariantly −2, but differed significantly from this value in both the ‘global’ and New Zealand data sets, and varied through time in the New Zealand data set.     

The potential beginning of a postwhaling recovery in New Zealand humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)

Between the 1940s and 1970s Southern Hemisphere populations of humpback whales (including eastern Australia and Oceania populations) were hunted to near extinction by extensive commercial whaling activities in Antarctica, with fewer whales taken in shore whaling operations in New Zealand, Australia (including Norfolk Island) and Tonga. Variable rates of recovery of these populations have been documented, ranging from recovery to prewhaling numbers in eastern Australian humpbacks to very little sign of recovery in many Oceania populations. Here we analyze recent sighting data collected over 12 yr, from annual surveys in Cook Strait, New Zealand. The data show an increase in sightings, at an estimated rate of 13% (95% CI of 4.9% and 21.7%) in 2015, of humpback whales migrating through Cook Strait. The wide confidence intervals preclude substantive conclusions about the rate of increase but suggest humpback whales are returning to this region in increasing numbers, indicating an influx of immigrants from neighboring areas, namely eastern Australia.     

Elevational parallels of latitudinal variation in the proportion of lianas in woody floras

Aim  To determine if elevational variation in the proportion of lianas in woody floras parallels the variation observed on latitudinal gradients. This is to be expected if the poleward decrease in the importance of lianas is related to the vulnerability of their wide vessels to freeze embolism.
Location  Coastal ranges of south-central Chile (latitude 37°–40° S) and western South Island of New Zealand (41°–43° S).
Methods  The presence of all woody species was recorded in plots of 2500 m² (Chile) or 100–400 m² (New Zealand) on four elevational gradients in temperate rain forest. Each species was classified as a tree, shrub or liana. Original data were obtained from 22 plots at two sites in Chile. In New Zealand, two surveys comprising a total of 296 plots were extracted from the National Vegetation Survey data base.
Results  Liana species richness declined more or less monotonically on all four gradients, whereas richness of trees and shrubs showed more varied elevational patterns. The proportion of woody species contributed by the liana life-form was negatively correlated with elevation on all four gradients, falling from 15 to 35% of the woody flora at c . 200 m a.s.l. to nil well below the tree line. The elevational and latitudinal limits of liana species were marginally significantly correlated in Chile, but not in New Zealand.
Main conclusions  The elevational parallel of the well-documented decline in liana representation with increasing latitude is consistent with the hypothesis that cold intolerance is a strong control on the global distribution of the liana life-form.     

Performance of a pyrethroid-resistant strain of the predator mite Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) under different insecticide regimes

An organophosphate pyrethroid-resistant strain of Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten imported from New Zealand was reared on potted apple trees in an outdoor insectary. From 1988 to 1995, the population was selected one to three times per year with a dilute solution (1.7 ppm) of the pyrethroid cypermethrin. Petri dish bioassays with cypermethrin in 1995 indicated that the insectary-reared T. pyri had an LC50 of 81 ppm versus 0.006 ppm for native T. pyri taken from a research orchard. The bioassays suggested that recommended orchard rates of cypermethrin would cause heavy mortality in native populations of T. pyri but only moderate losses in the imported New Zealand strain. Bioassays in 1996 with the organophosphate insecticide dimethoate indicated both New Zealand and native T. pyri were susceptible and that recommended orchard rates of dimethoate likely would cause high mortality of T. pyri in apple orchards. These findings from bioassays were supported by data from orchard trials. In June and July 1993, insectary-reared New Zealand T. pyri were placed on five apple trees in each of eight 38-tree plots in the research orchard. In late August 1994, New Zealand T. pyri from orchard trees that had been sprayed twice by airblast sprayer with the full recommended rate of 50 g (AI)/ha (83 ppm) cypermethrin were placed on the other 33 trees in each of six plots. In the summers of 1994-1996, plots were treated with one of the following insecticide regimes: (1) conventional integrated pest management (IPM) (registered neurotoxic insecticides considered harmless or slightly toxic to T. pyri); (2) advanced IPM (use of newer, more selective insecticides); (3) pyrethroid (at least one full-rate application of cypermethrin); (4) dimethoate; and (5) dimethoate plus pyrethroid. Densities of European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), were highest in all plots treated with dimethoate and in pyrethroid plots not yet inoculated with New Zealand T. pyri. Densities of apple rust mite, Aculus schlechtendali (Nalepa), and of the stigmaeid predator Zetzellia mali (Ewing) were highest in plots treated with dimethoate and were nearly absent in the IPM plots. Densities of T. pyri were high enough for effective biocontrol in the IPM plots and in the pyrethroid plots 1-2 yr after release of the New Zealand strain, provided pyrethroid was applied just before the resistant strain was released in the orchard. A recurring theme of this study was the generally negative association between densities of phytophagous mites and those of T. pyri, suggesting the ability of this predator to suppress their prey. In contrast, the positive association between phytophagous mites and Z. mali suggests the inability of this predator to regulate their prey at least under the conditions of this study.     

Biodiversity monitoring by community‐based restoration groups in New Zealand

In recent decades, community groups have transformed habitat restoration, pest control and species translocations in New Zealand. Large areas of wild New Zealand benefit hugely from ongoing management by community‐based restoration groups. Areas near cities and towns have especially good access to pools of keen volunteers. Community groups are involved in monitoring progress with their work, as well as monitoring biodiversity changes in general at their project sites. New tools powered by modern technologies are creating the opportunity for New Zealand's community volunteers to play a transformative role in biodiversity monitoring for either purpose. These tools are reducing the resources and expertise required for species detection and identification. Smartphones with cameras, GPS, audio recorders and data apps make it easier than ever to record species observations. Crowd‐sourced identification of species in photographs and sounds loaded onto NatureWatch NZ allow volunteers to make observations of a much wider range of taxa than just common birds and trees. Realising this potential requires community groups, scientists and their institutions to collaborate in building and maintaining simple, accessible monitoring systems that (i) require and promote standard monitoring methods, (ii) provide efficient data entry in standard formats, (iii) generate automated results of use to community groups and (iv) facilitate public sharing of data to contribute to regional, national and global biodiversity monitoring. Some New Zealand monitoring systems developed recently to assist community‐based restoration groups with monitoring mammalian predator control are good examples of this approach. Making this happen at a large scale across many community groups and taxa requires increased and coordinated long‐term institutional support for monitoring systems and training.     

Effects of Biosolid Soil Amendment on Heterodera glycines Populations

The high degree of parasitic variability in Heterodera glycines and its distribution in a wide range of soybean production systems present multiple challenges for management, which necessitate increased understanding of the biology of H. glycines. Soil amendments are being considered either as stand-alone and/or as part of integrated management approaches. A recycled municipal biosolid with nutrition supplement and liming qualities, N-Viro Soil (NVS) has potential as a multi-purpose soil amendment. In three greenhouse experiments, the effects of 0, 1.0 or 4.0 g NVS/100 cm³ of sandy loam soil on three H. glycines populations (GN1, GN2 and GN3) were investigated on soybean grown for 557 ± 68 degree-days (base 10°C). The response of the three H. glycines populations to NVS treatment varied by experiment. The overall numbers of preadult stages and cysts generally decreased with increasing levels of NVS in all experiments, and the high rate was more effective than the low rate in suppressing H. glycines numbers. This suggests that the high NVS treatment can affect the three populations in the experimental soil type under controlled conditions. Field studies to determine efficacy of the soil amendment in a wide range of environments should be initiated.     

Effects of Hirsutella minnesotensis and N-Viro Soil® on populations of Meloidogyne hapla

This study was conducted to determine the effects of Hirsutella minnesotensis (Hm), an endoparasitic fungus, and N-Viro Soil® (NVS), a recycled municipal biosolid, on Meloidogyne hapla greenhouse populations from Rhode Island (RI), Connecticut (CT), Geneva, New York (NYG), Lyndonville, New York (NYL), and Michigan (MI). In a greenhouse experiment, tomato (cv. Rutgers) seedlings were inoculated with 0 or 600 eggs of each nematode population and exposed to Hm mycelium (0 or 0.1 g fresh) and NVS (0 or 1 g 0.1 L^-1 of soil) in a factorial design. Hirsutella minnesotensis reduced nematode densities by 31-83% across nematode populations in one test, but only slightly reduced densities of NYG and CT populations in another test. NVS reduced nematode densities by 33-92% across populations in two repeated tests. The combination of the two agents resulted in greater nematode reduction compared with Hm alone, but not compared with NVS alone. Across all Hm and NVS treatments, reduction of nematode densities were generally greater in NYG, CT, and RI than in MI and NYL populations. This study demonstrated that Hm and NVS may be used to suppress different M. hapla populations.     

Non-marital pregnancies in New Zealand since the Second World War

The % of illegitimate births in New Zealand more than doubled from 1951 to 1976. Through 1971 most of this increase was due to an increase in nonmarital fertility rates. After 1971 most of this increase was due to a decrease in marital fertility rates. The % of pregnant brides in New Zealand increased from the beginning of available statistics in 1940, leveled off in the early and mid 1960s, and has been declining since then. This is not a measure of premarital sexual activity in the population. But the declining trend is mainly due to the declining probability of marriage when nonmaritally pregnant and the rising probability of marrying when not pregnant. Nonmarital pregnancy rates increased from 1940 to the mid 1960s before levelling off and dropping sharply during the 1970s. The increase is believed to be be due to an increase in premarital sex. The levelling off reflects the advent of the pill. The declining rate is probably due to the increased availability of abortion. A greater openness about premarital sexuality leading to an increase in the use of contraceptives also could have been a contributing factor. Data is divided into non-Maori and total population.     

Welcome back New Zealand: regional biogeography and Gondwanan origin of three endemic genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi)

Aim Biogeographers have long been intrigued by New Zealand’s biota due to its unique combination of typical ‘continental’ and ‘island’ characteristics. The New Zealand plateau rifted from the former supercontinent Gondwana c. 80 Ma, and has been isolated from other land masses ever since. Therefore, the flora and fauna of New Zealand include lineages that are Gondwanan in origin, but also include a very large number of endemics. In this study, we analyse the evolutionary relationships of three genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi) endemic to New Zealand, both to each other and to their temperate Gondwanan relatives found in Australia, Chile, Sri Lanka and South Africa. Location New Zealand (North Island, South Island and Stewart Island). Methods A total of 94 specimens of the family Pettalidae in the suborder Cyphophthalmi were studied, representing 31 species and subspecies belonging to three endemic genera from New Zealand (Aoraki, Neopurcellia and Rakaia) plus six other members of the family from Chile, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Australia. The phylogeny of these taxa was constructed using morphological and molecular data from five nuclear and mitochondrial genes (18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and histone H3, totalling c. 5 kb), which were analysed using dynamic as well as static homology under a variety of optimality criteria. Results The results showed that each of the three New Zealand cyphophthalmid genera is monophyletic, and occupies a distinct geographical region within the archipelago, grossly corresponding to palaeogeographical regions. All three genera of New Zealand mite harvestmen fall within the family Pettalidae with a classic temperate Gondwanan distribution, but they do not render any other genera paraphyletic. Main conclusions Our study shows that New Zealand’s three genera of mite harvestmen are unequivocally related to other members of the temperate Gondwanan family Pettalidae. Monophyly of each genus contradicts the idea of recent dispersal to New Zealand. Within New Zealand, striking biogeographical patterns are apparent in this group of short‐range endemics, particularly in the South Island. These patterns are interpreted in the light of New Zealand’s turbulent geological history and present‐day patterns of forest cover.     

Molecular evidence for bicontinental hybridogenous genomic constitution in Lepidium sensu stricto (Brassicaceae) species from Australia and New Zealand

Lepidium sensu stricto (s.s.) (Brassicaceae) (ca. 150 species) is distributed worldwide with endemic species on every continent. It is represented in Australia and New Zealand by 19 and seven native species, respectively. In the present study we used a nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) phylogeny in comparison with a cpDNA phylogeny to unravel the origin of Australian/New Zealand species. Although phylogenetic relationships within Lepidium s.s. were not fully resolved, the cpDNA data were in agreement with a Californian origin of Lepidium species from Australia/New Zealand. Strongly conflicting signals between the cp- and nuclear DNA phylogenetic analysis clearly indicated hybridogenous genomic constitution of Australian Lepidium s.s. species: All 18 studied Australian/New Zealand Lepidium s.s. species examined shared a Californian cpDNA type. While eleven Australian/New Zealand species appeared to harbor a Californian ITS type, a group of seven species shared a South African ITS type. This pattern is most likely explained by two trans-oceanic dispersals of Lepidium from California and Africa to Australia/New Zealand and subsequent hybridization followed by homogenization of the ribosomal DNA either to the Californian or South African ITS type in the two different lineages. Calibration of our molecular trees indicates a Pliocene/Pleistocene origin of Lepidium in Australia/New Zealand. Low levels of cpDNA and ITS sequence divergence and unresolved topologies within Australian/New Zealand species suggest a rapid and recent radiation of Lepidium after the hybridization event. This coincides with dramatic climatic changes in that geological epoch shaping the composition of the vegetation.     

Population density and geographical range size in the introduced and native passerine faunas of New Zealand

The current avifauna of New Zealand comprises species with two distinct origins: those that evolved in New Zealand or colonized naturally from neighbouring landmasses, and those that were deliberately introduced to the islands by European settlers. Elsewhere, it has been shown that for species introduced to New Zealand from Britain there is a positive interspecific correlation between the geographical range sizes attained in both countries. Since positive relationships between abundance, measured either as population size or density, and geographical range size are a near ubiquitous feature of assemblages of closely related animal species, this suggests that species’ abundances may also be so correlated between the two countries. Here, data for 12 passerine bird species introduced to New Zealand from Britain are used to compare population densities and density–range size relationships in their native and alien ranges. In addition, the density–range size relationship for 12 passerine bird species that can be considered native to New Zealand is compared to that for the introduced species. The geographical range size and the mean and maximum densities of introduced species in New Zealand were significantly positively correlated with those values for the same species in Britain. However, in no case was the relationship between mean density and range size significant. While not statistically significant, density–range size relationships for introduced species are similar in New Zealand and Britain, but those for introduced and native species in New Zealand are quite different. Implications of these patterns are discussed.     

Immunochemical study of nutritionally variant streptococci

Nutritionally variant streptococci (NVS) have been characterized by their growth as satellite colonies around colonies of staphylococci or several other gram-positive or gram-negative bacterial strains. The majority of the NVS strains were isolated from patients with subacute bacterial endocarditis. Organisms identified as NVS were subdivided into three serotypes by rocket-line electrophoresis and hemagglutination inhibition assays. Ninety-nine of 103 strains expressed one or more of the three serotype antigens; however, a group antigen was not demonstrated in the various extracts of these streptococci. Surface protein studies confirmed the NVS differentiation into serotypes. Serotype I organisms expressed surface protein(s) specific for the serotype, whereas the serotype II and III NVS demonstrated common protein(s) on their surface. Furthermore, SDS extraction released a greater amount of radioiodinatable surface protein from serotypes I and III bacteria than serotype II. Finally, there was no correlation between the serotype or the disease of the patients from which the NVS strains were isolated.     

Panbiogeography and conservation science in New Zealand

Abstract

New Zealand’s official conservation science framework, the Protected Natural Areas Programme (PNA), is evaluated in relation to current biogeographic/systematic methods and principles with reference to philosophy, taxonomy, information content, and historical geological/biological relations. The PNA Programme and its parent International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) framework is based on a phenetic system of classification that does not reflect process (phylogenetic) characters of ecological systems. The PNA philosophy of conservation science is shown to be essentialist, rooted in traditional medieval Western metaphysics, and out of step with current developments in biogeography, systematics, and ecology. Panbiogeography is an appropriate global perspective for developing a conservation science because it meets the requirements of homology, monophyly, increased information content, and empirical testability whereas the PNA programme does not. Establishment of a Panbiogeographic Track Atlas is proposed as a suitable conservation framework for historical ecology and biogeography. The atlas could provide an empirical natural resource inventory to identify priority areas for conservation at an economically acceptable cost compared to the PNA Programme. Application of cladistic techniques to ecological and biogeographic patterns in relation to the Atlas can provide aphylogenetically sound hierarchical classification for conservation science. The potential benefits of the panbiogeographic approach for conservation education and tourism are discussed.     

Marine Biodiversity of Aotearoa New Zealand

The marine-biodiversity assessment of New Zealand (Aotearoa as known to Māori) is confined to the 200 nautical-mile boundary of the Exclusive Economic Zone, which, at 4.2 million km², is one of the largest in the world. It spans 30° of latitude and includes a high diversity of seafloor relief, including a trench 10 km deep. Much of this region remains unexplored biologically, especially the 50% of the EEZ deeper than 2,000 m. Knowledge of the marine biota is based on more than 200 years of marine exploration in the region. The major oceanographic data repository is the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), which is involved in several Census of Marine Life field projects and is the location of the Southwestern Pacific Regional OBIS Node; NIWA is also data manager and custodian for fisheries research data owned by the Ministry of Fisheries. Related data sources cover alien species, environmental measures, and historical information. Museum collections in New Zealand hold more than 800,000 registered lots representing several million specimens. During the past decade, 220 taxonomic specialists (85 marine) from 18 countries have been engaged in a project to review New Zealand''s entire biodiversity. The above-mentioned marine information sources, published literature, and reports were scrutinized to give the results summarized here for the first time (current to 2010), including data on endemism and invasive species. There are 17,135 living species in the EEZ. This diversity includes 4,315 known undescribed species in collections. Species diversity for the most intensively studied phylum-level taxa (Porifera, Cnidaria, Mollusca, Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Kinorhyncha, Echinodermata, Chordata) is more or less equivalent to that in the ERMS (European Register of Marine Species) region, which is 5.5 times larger in area than the New Zealand EEZ. The implication is that, when all other New Zealand phyla are equally well studied, total marine diversity in the EEZ may be expected to equal that in the ERMS region. This equivalence invites testable hypotheses to explain it. There are 177 naturalized alien species in New Zealand coastal waters, mostly in ports and harbours. Marine-taxonomic expertise in New Zealand covers a broad number of taxa but is, proportionately, at or near its lowest level since the Second World War. Nevertheless, collections are well supported by funding and are continually added to. Threats and protection measures concerning New Zealand''s marine biodiversity are commented on, along with potential and priorities for future research.     

Chemical-Mediated Toxicity of N-Viro Soil to Heterodera glycines and Meloidogyne incognita

N-Viro Soil (NVS) is an alkaline-stabilized municipal biosolid that has been shown to lower population densities and reduce egg hatch of Heterodera glycines and other plant-parasitic nematodes; but the mechanism(s) of nematode suppression of this soil amendment are unknown. This study sought to identify NVS-mediated changes in soil chemical properties and their impact upon H. glycines and Meloidogyne incognita mortality. N-Viro Soil was applied to sand in laboratory assays at 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and 3.0% dry w/w with a nonamended treatment as a control. Nematode mortality and changes in sand-assay chemical properties were determined 24 hours after incubation. Calculated lethal concentration (LC₉₀) values were 1.4% w/w NVS for second-stage juveniles of both nematode species and 2.6 and >3.0% w/w NVS for eggs of M. incognita and H. glycines, respectively. Increasing rates of NVS were strongly correlated (r² = 0.84) with higher sand solution pH levels. Sand solution pH levels and, to a lesser extent, the production of ammonia appeared to be the inorganic chemical-mediated factors responsible for killing plant-parasitic nematodes following amendment with NVS.