Acoustic communication in Okanagana rimosa (Say) (Homoptera: Cicadidae)

The cicada Okanagana rimosa (Say) has an acoustic communication system with three types of loud timbal sounds: (i) A calling song lasting several seconds to about 1 min which consists of a sequence of chirps at a repetition rate of 83 chirps per second. Each chirp of about 6 ms duration contains 4-5 pulses. The sound level of the calling song is 87-90 dB SPL at a distance of 15 cm. (ii) An amplitude modulated courtship song with increasing amplitude and repetition rate of chirps and pulses. (iii) A protest squawk with irregular chirp and pulse structure. The spectra of all three types are similar and show main energy peaks at 8-10 kHz. Only males sing, and calling song production is influenced by the songs of other males, resulting in an almost continuous sound in dense populations. In such populations, the calling songs overlap and the temporal structure of individual songs is obscured within the habitat. The calling song of the broadly sympatric, closely related species O. canadensis (Provander) is similar in frequency content, but distinct in the temporal pattern (24 chirps per second, 24 ms chirp duration, eight pulses per chirp) which is likely important for species separation in sympatric populations. The hearing threshold of the auditory nerve is similar for females and males of O. rimosa and most sensitive at 4-5 kHz. Experiments in the field show that female phonotaxis of O. rimosa depends on parameters of the calling song. Most females are attracted to calling song models with a 9 kHz carrier frequency (peak frequency of the calling song), but not to models with a 5 kHz carrier frequency (minimum hearing threshold). Phonotaxis depends on temporal parameters of the conspecific song, especially chirp repetition rate. Calling song production is influenced by environmental factors, and likelihood to sing increases with temperature and brightness of the sky. Correspondingly, females perform phonotaxis most often during sunny conditions with temperatures above 22 degrees C. Non-mated and mated females are attracted by the acoustic signals, and the percentage of mated females performing phonotaxis increases during the season.     

Temperature dependence of cicada songs (Homoptera, Cicadoidea)

The songs of male Portuguese cicadas Tettigetta argentata, T. josei and Tympanistalna gastrica were recorded at five to seven temperatures within the range 24-38.5 degrees C. To investigate the temperature dependence of the neuromuscular apparatus involved in song production, different temporal elements of the calling songs were measured. We report a strong temperature dependence for the syllable and the echeme rates in T. josei and Ty. gastrica. This suggests that in these species the neuromuscular structures involved in the timbal cycle and in generating the echeme succession of the song are strongly temperature dependent. In T. argentata, the syllable rate was again significantly temperature dependent; the echeme rate, however, increased between 25.5 degrees C and 33.5 degrees C but decreased with the highest temperature. This indicates that at least in T. argentata two separate neuronal networks control both song parameters. Other temporal elements of the song with potential behavioural significance were also measured and found to be temperature dependent (e.g. echeme duration and interval). The possible implications for intraspecific communication are discussed. We also demonstrate that the temperature of these small cicadas is not significantly influenced by the muscle activity involved in song production. On the other hand, exposure to sunlight can be used by these cicadas to elevate their body temperature by more than 10 degrees C.     

蚱蝉(Cryptotympana atrata Fabricius)自鸣声音色的变化

蚱蝉自鸣声的音色分为单音色、双音色.及三音色等.本文进一步阐明每种音色的变化及高幅值脉冲对主音色能量的影响.蚱蝉自鸣声音色的变化主要是指频谱主音色频率(MTF)的显著改变、蚱蝉单色自鸣声的MTF主要在4.1—5.8kHz的频带内变化,双音色自鸣声的主次音色频率有相互颠倒现象,MTF主要在3.6—5.4kHz之间,三音色自鸣声的MTF虽然在3.5—4.5kHz比较窄的频带内,但三个音色峰的能量十分接近显示了三种音色成分.同只蚱蝉自鸣声,在不同的鸣声段具有近似相等的最大幅值,但高幅值脉冲个数的多少不同,相应主音色能量的大小与这些脉冲个数的多少对应.     

Thermoregulation and the effect of body temperature on call temporal parameters in the cicada Diceroprocta olympusa (Homoptera: Cicadidae)

We investigated the thermoregulatory behavior, thermal responses (minimum flight, maximum voluntary tolerance and heat torpor temperatures) and the effect of body temperature (T(b)) on call parameters in the cicada Diceroprocta olympusa (Walker). Regression of T(b) as a function of ambient (T(a)) or perch temperatures (T(p)) suggests thermoregulation is occurring. Thermoregulation occurs through behavioral changes that alter the uptake of solar radiation. T(p) is a better predictor of T(b) than is T(a). Thermal responses (minimum flight temperature 20.4 degrees C, maximum voluntary tolerance temperature 37 degrees C, and heat torpor temperature 46.7 degrees C) may be related to the humid, grassland habitat of the species. In contrast to other acoustic insects, no significant relationship was found between the temporal parameters of the calling song and T(b) within the population of D. olympusa.     

Auditory behaviour of a parasitoid fly (Emblemasoma auditrix, Sarcophagidae, Diptera)

Females of the parasitoid fly Emblemasoma auditrix find their host cicada (Okanagana rimosa) by its acoustic signals. In laboratory experiments, fly phonotaxis had a mean threshold of about 66 dB SPL when tested with the cicada calling song. Flies exhibited a frequency dependent phonotaxis when testing to song models with different carrier frequencies (pulses of 6 ms duration and a repetition rate of 80 pulses s(-1)). However, the phonotactic threshold was rather broadly tuned in the range from 5 kHz to 11 kHz. Phonotaxis was also dependent on the temporal parameters of the song models: repetition rates of 60 pulses s(-1) and 80 pulses s and pulse durations of 5-7 ms resulted in the highest percentages of phonotaxis performing animals coupled with the lowest threshold values. Thus, parasitoid phonotaxis is adapted especially to the temporal parameters of the calling song of the host. Choice experiments revealed a preference of a song model with 9 kHz carrier frequency (peak energy of the host song) compared with 5 kHz carrier frequency (electrophysiologically determined best hearing frequency). However, this preference changed with the relative sound pressure level of both signals. When presented simultaneously, E. auditrix preferred 5-kHz signals, if they were 5 dB SPL louder than the 9-kHz signal.     

Temperature modulates P2X receptor-mediated cardiovascular responses to muscle afferent activation

Static muscle contraction increases ATP release into the muscle interstitial space. Elevated ATP in muscle stimulates thin fiber muscle afferents and increases blood pressure via engagement of purinergic P2X receptors. In addition, ATP activates P2X receptors and enhances cardiovascular responses induced by stimulation of muscle mechanoreceptors. In this study, we examined whether elevated muscle temperature would attenuate and whether reduced temperature would potentiate P2X effects on reflex muscle responses. alpha,beta-Methylene ATP (alpha,beta-MeATP) was injected into the arterial blood supply of hindlimb muscle to stimulate P2X receptors, and muscle stretch was induced to activate mechanically sensitive muscle afferents as alpha,beta-MeATP was injected in 10 anesthetized cats. Femoral arterial injection of alpha,beta-MeATP (1.0 mM) increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) by 35+/-5 (35 degrees C), 26+/-3 (37 degrees C), and 19+/-3 mmHg (39 degrees C; P<0.05 vs. 35 degrees C), respectively. Muscle stretch (2 kg) elevated MAP. The MAP response was significantly enhanced 34% and 36% when alpha,beta-MeATP (0.2 mM) was arterially infused 5 min before muscle stretch at 35 degrees and 37 degrees C, respectively. However, as muscle temperature reached 39 degrees C, the stretch-evoked response was augmented only 6% by alpha,beta-MeATP injection, and the response was significantly attenuated compared with the response with muscle temperature of 35 degrees and 37 degrees C. In addition, we also examined effects of muscle temperature on alpha,beta-MeATP enhancement of the cardiovascular responses to static muscle contraction while the muscles were freely perfused and the circulation to the muscles was occluded. Because muscle temperature was 37 degrees C, arterial injections of alpha,beta-MeATP significantly augmented contraction-evoked MAP response by 49% (freely perfused) and 53% (ischemic condition), respectively. It is noted that this effect was significantly attenuated at a muscle temperature of 39 degrees C. These data indicate that the effect of P2X receptor on reflex muscle response is sensitive to alternations of muscle temperature and that elevated temperature attenuates the response.     

Body temperature and the acoustic behavior of the cicadaTibicen winnemanna (Homoptera: Cicadidae)

Tibicen winnemanna (Davis) produces a broad-band frequency- and amplitude-modulated advertisement call. Observations of the animals in the field show that the cicadas produce varied acoustic output. This work investigates the connection between the acoustic behavior of the cicada and the body temperature of the calling animal. The results show there is strong evidence to support the hypothesis that both acoustic output and song intensity are highly dependent on body temperature.     

Acoustic adaptations to anthropogenic noise in the cicada Cryptotympana takasagona Kato (Hemiptera: Cicadidae)

Anthropogenic noise produced by human activities affects acoustic communication in animals living in urban habitats. We recorded the calling songs of the cicada Cryptotympana takasagona in the Kaohsiung metropolitan areas of southern Taiwan to investigate possible acoustic adaptations to anthropogenic noise. C. takasagona did not call more in noise gaps. Acoustic features (peak frequency, quartile 25%, quartile 50%, and quartile 75%) of calling songs significantly increased with ambient noise levels. C. takasagona shifted the energy distribution of calling songs to higher frequencies in the presence of higher noise levels. We suggest that the acoustic adaptation by which song frequencies increase with levels of anthropogenic noise in C. takasagona may result from a size-dependent calling strategy in which small-sized males call more in noise conditions or large-sized males adjust their song frequency by changing their abdominal cavities.     

蟋蟀(Loxoblemmus doenitzi Stein)鸣声的特征和黑蝉(C.atrata Fabricius.)鸣声对其的影响

本文由1741个叫声的分析,给出了蟋蟀的鸣声特征和黑蝉叫声的影响.雄蟋招引声的每个单次叫声(SC)平均含有7.6个节拍,每个含有2个脉冲列组,每组含有4个主要的调幅脉冲列.每个SC的声长、间隔和平均重复周期(?)及节拍速(?)分别为1.285-1.325s,0.755—0.746s和2.078s及每秒7.6个节拍.鸣声谱的主峰频率(MPF)和MPF下降20db的带宽分别为5223±79Hz和(4498±82)—(5656±68)Hz.正在歌唱的蟋蟀鸣声基本上不受黑蝉自鸣声的影响,但黑蝉的前置自鸣声对蟋蟀鸣声波形有一定的影响.黑蝉的惊叫声不仅对蟋蟀鸣声波形有明显影响,而且时间特性有一定影响,即(?)约缩短一半,(?)的变差明显扩大.但对频率特性都无影响.     

Ambient temperature and sound power of cicada calling songs (Hemiptera: Cicadidae: Tibicina)

Abstract.  Male cicadas produce a loud calling song that attracts females at long range. In some cases, ambient temperature has been shown to have an effect on the temporal structure of this acoustic signal. Here, a positive correlation is reported for the first time between the ambient temperature and the sound power of the calling song. This relationship is illustrated in three species of the Palaearctic genus Tibicina : Tibicina corsica fairmairei Boulard, Tibicina garricola Boulard and Tibicina tomentosa Olivier. It is suggested that the males thermoregulate behaviourally. The minimal ambient temperature range that the Tibicina species need to call is 22–24 °C. The effect of ambient temperature on calling song power is assumed to be the result of thermal effects in the response of the acoustic system (i.e. muscle activity of the acoustic system being temperature-dependent). Inter-individual and interspecific differences in calling song power are interpreted in the general context of the Tibicina sound behaviour.     

Thermoregulation in the cicada Platypedia putnami variety lutea (Homoptera: Tibicinidae) with a test of a crepitation hypothesis

• 1.Measurements of body temperature (T_b) in the field demonstrate that Platypedia putnami var. lutea Davis regulates T_b through behavioral mechanisms.
• 2.Thermal responses (minimum flight temperature 17.3°C, maximum voluntary tolerance-temperature 32.5°C, and heat torpor temperature 44.4°C) of P. putnami var. lutea are related to the altitude of their habitat.
• 3.Water loss rates increase with ambient temperature (T_a). Water loss rates are not significantly different at the extremes of the active T_b range but increase significantly when exposed to elevated T_a.
• 4.Acoustic activity was restricted at 6.7°C T_b range. This is similar to the lower end of the T_b range for singing measured in cicada species that produce sound with a timbal mechanism.
• 5.The use of the wing musculature to produce acoustic signals in P. putnami var. lutea does not increase the T_b range over which the species can call compared to timbal calls produced by other cicada species.

     

鸣鸣蝉（Oncotympana maculaticollis Motsch）发声肌中肌原纤维的双阵列结构及莫发声原初过程的分析

给出了鸣鸣蝉发声肌肌原纤维的双阵结构,其肌纤维中并存两种不同阵列的“快”和“慢”劝肌原纤维不同,分别为３：１和５：１。明显区别于单音调鸣声的蝉类发声肌肌原纤维的ＲＴＴＦ为３：１的单阵列,即与鸣鸣蝉变音调声产生的原初机制相适应。     

Temperature coupling in cricket acoustic communication

Summary Temperature effects on calling song production and recognition were investigated in the North American field cricket, Gryllus firmus. Temporal parameters of field-recorded G. firmus calling song are strongly affected by temperature. Chirp rate and syllable rate increase, by factors of 4 and 2, respectively, as linear functions of temperature over the range in which these animals sing in the field (12°–30 °C). Temperature affects syllable duration to a lesser extent, and does not influence calling song carrier frequency. Female phonotactic preference, measured on a spherical treadmill in the laboratory, also changes with temperature such that warmer females prefer songs with faster chirp and syllable rates. Best phonotaxis, measured as accuracy of orientation to the sound source, and highest walking velocity, occur in response to temperature-matched songs at 15°, 21°, and 30 °C. Experiments under semi-natural conditions in an outdoor arena revealed that females perform phonotaxis at temperatures as low as 13 °C. Taken together, the song and phonotaxis data demonstrate that this communication system is temperature coupled. A strategy is outlined by which temperature coupling may be exploited to test hypotheses about the organization of neural networks subserving song recognition.Abbreviations CP chirp period - SP syllable period - SD syllable duration     

鸣鸣蝉（Oncotympana maculaticollis Motsch）发声肌中肌原纤维的双阵列结构及莫发声原初过程的分析

给出了鸣鸣蝉发声肌肌原纤维的双阵列结构,其肌纤维中并存两种不同阵列的“快”和“慢”动肌原纤维（ＦＳＭ和ＳＳＭ）．ＦＳＭ和ＳＳＭ虽然由粗肌丝构成相同的阵列骨架,但细肌丝对粗肌丝的比例（ＲＴＩＦ）不同,分别为３：１和５：１．明显区别于单音调鸣声的蝉类发声肌肌原纤维的ＲＴＩＦ为３：１的单阵列结构,即与鸣鸣蝉变音调声产生的原初机制相适应．     

Fever is not responsible for the elevated glucose kinetics in sepsis

Previous studies have suggested that alterations in the classical neuroendocrine system may not be responsible for the increased glucose metabolism observed during hypermetabolic sepsis. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether inhibition of the cyclooxygenase pathway with indomethacin, which prevents the production of arachidonic acid metabolites by this pathway and the sepsis-induced increase in body temperature, would abolish the increases in glucose appearance (Ra), recycling, and hyperlactacidemia. Sepsis was induced in chronically catheterized conscious rats by multiple injections of live Escherichia coli via a subcutaneous catheter. Septic animals received iv injections of indomethacin (5 mg/kg) every 6-8 hr to block the cyclooxygenase pathway. Glucose kinetics were assessed in 24-hr fasted rats using a constant iv infusion of [6-3H]- and [U-14C]glucose. Treatment with indomethacin prevented the 1-2 degrees C increase in body temperature observed in septic animals. Septic rats exhibited an elevated plasma lactate concentration and increased rates of glucose appearance and recycling. The sepsis-induced alterations in these variables were not attenuated by indomethacin. These results suggest that neither elevated body temperature nor the generation of arachidonic acid metabolites of the cyclooxygenase pathway is responsible for increasing glucose production in hypermetabolic septic rats.     

Phonotaxis in flying crickets

The effects of two-tone stimuli on the high frequency bat-avoidance steering behavior of flying crickets (Teleogryllus oceanicus) were studied during tethered flight. Similarly, the effects of two-tone stimuli on the ultrasound sensitive auditory interneuron, Int-1, which elicits this behavior, were studied using intracellular staining and recording techniques. When a low frequency tone (3-8 kHz) was presented simultaneously with an aversive high frequency tone (in a two-tone stimulus paradigm), the high frequency avoidance steering behavior was suppressed. Suppression was optimal when the low frequency tone was between 4 and 5 kHz and about 10-15 dB louder than the high frequency tone (Figs. 2, 3). Best suppression occurred when the low frequency tone-pulse just preceded or overlapped the high frequency tone-pulse, indicating that the suppressive effects of 5 kHz could last for up to 70 ms (Fig. 4). The threshold for avoidance of the bat-like stimulus was elevated when model bat biosonar (30 kHz) was presented while the animal was performing positive phonotaxis toward 5 kHz model calling song, but only if the calling song intensity was relatively high (greater than 70-80 dB SPL) (Fig. 1). However, avoidance steering could always be elicited as long as the calling song was not more than 10 dB louder than the ultrasound (Fig. 1). This suppressive effect did not require performance of positive phonotaxis to the calling song (Fig. 2) and was probably due to the persistence of the suppressive effects of the 5 kHz model calling song (Fig. 4). The requirement for relatively high intensities of calling song suggest that the suppression of bat-avoidance by the calling song is not likely to be of great significance in nature. The high frequency harmonics of the male cricket's natural calling song overlap the lower frequency range used by insectivorous bats (10-20 kHz) and are loud enough to elicit avoidance behavior in a flying female as she closely approaches a singing male (Fig. 5). The high frequency 'harmonics' of a model calling song were aversive even if presented with a normally attractive temporal pattern (pulse repetition rate of 16 pps) (Fig. 6A). When the 5 kHz 'fundamental' was added to one of the high frequency 'harmonics', in a two-tone stimulus paradigm, this complex model calling song was attractive; the high frequency 'harmonic' no longer elicited the avoidance behavior (Fig. 6) and the animals steered toward the model CS. Thus, addition of 5 kHz to a high frequency harmonic of the calling song 'masked' the aversive nature of this stimulus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Temperature coupling as an emergent property: parallel thermal effects on male song and female response do not contribute to species recognition in an acoustic moth

Temperature coupling exists when changes in male signal production with temperature are paralleled by changes in female response. Such thermal effects have been observed in various ectothermic animals producing acoustic, visual, and electric signals in which the signal rate may be subject to stabilizing selection imposed by female preference. Often, coupling was considered as an adaptive function wherein male and female thermal effects coevolved under selection pressure favoring species recognition, although this assumption has not been tested definitively. We investigated thermal effects on pulse-pair rate in male song and female acceptance threshold for male song rate in an acoustic moth, Achroia grisella, in which male song rate is subject to directional selection. Male song rate and female acceptance threshold do exhibit parallel increases as temperature rises from 18 degrees C to 30 degrees C, but female thresholds are much lower than male song rates and the thermal effect on female response cannot augment species recognition. In further investigations using inbred lines of A. grisella we found that the male and female thermal effects are genetically correlated, and we discuss the likely sources of this covariance. We consider several explanations for the occurrence of temperature coupling in this species and suggest that it represents an emergent property arising from the neuromuscular responses to temperature that are common to several physiological systems.     

Acoustic and Temporal Partitioning of Cicada Assemblages in City and Mountain Environments

Comparing adaptations to noisy city environments with those to natural mountain environments on the community level can provide significant insights that allow an understanding of the impact of anthropogenic noise on invertebrates that employ loud calling songs for mate attraction, especially when each species has its distinct song, as in the case of cicadas. In this study, we investigated the partitioning strategy of cicada assemblages in city and mountain environments by comparing the acoustic features and calling activity patterns of each species, recorded using automated digital recording systems. Our comparison of activity patterns of seasonal and diel calling revealed that there was no significant temporal partitioning of cicada assemblages in either environment. In addition, there was no correlation between the acoustic distance based on spectral features and temporal segregation. Heterospecific spectral overlap was low in both city and mountain environments, although city and mountain cicada assemblages were subject to significantly different levels of anthropogenic or interspecific noise. Furthermore, for the common species found in both environments, the calling activity patterns at both seasonal and diel time scales were significantly consistent across sites and across environments. We suggest that the temporal calling activity is constrained by endogenous factors for each species and is less flexible in response to external factors, such as anthropogenic noise. As a result, cicada assemblages in city environments with low species diversity do not demonstrate a more significant temporal partitioning than those in mountain environments with high species diversity.     

Asymmetric song responses in coexisting Japanese cicadas

Diel partitioning of singing, which has been observed from the tropics to the temperate regions, is among the various mechanisms of sound partitioning found in multispecies cicada assemblages and is regarded as an important mechanism of coexistence. Using playback experiments, we studied interspecific interference between two Japanese cicadas, Cryptotympana facialis and Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata, which exhibit similar peak frequencies in their calling songs and different diel patterns of song activity. We found that the males of the two species had different song response patterns: C. facialis responded significantly more to conspecific calling songs than G. nigrofuscata. These results suggest that male C. facialis have evolved more intense conspecific song recognition than G. nigrofuscata. This may cause male G. nigrofuscata to avoid destructive acoustic interference during their active singing time.     

Temperature dependence of rat diaphragm muscle contractility and fatigue

The diaphragm is a skeletal muscle of mixed fiber type that is unique in its requirement to maintain contractile function and fatigue resistance across a wide range of temperatures to sustain alveolar ventilation under conditions of hypo- or hyperthermia. The direct effect of temperature (15-41 degrees C) on rat diaphragm isometric contractility and fatigue was determined in vitro. As temperature decreased from 37 to 15 degrees C, contraction and relaxation times increased, and there was a left shift of the diaphragm's force-frequency curve, with decreased contractility at 41 and 15 degrees C. Fatigue was induced by 10 min of stimulation with 30 trains/min of 5 Hz at a train duration of 900 ms. Compared with 37 degrees C, fatigue resistance was enhanced at 25 degrees C, but no difference in fatigue indexes was evident at extreme hypothermia (15 degrees C) or hyperthermia (41 degrees C). Only when the fatigue program was adjusted to account for hypothermia-induced increases in tension-time indexes was fatigue resistance evident at 15 degrees C. These findings indicate that despite the diaphragm's unique location as a core structure, necessitating exposure to in vivo temperatures higher than found in limb muscle, the temperature dependence of rat diaphragm muscle contractility and fatigue is similar to that reported for limb muscle of mixed fiber type.