线粒体自噬在缺氧条件下适应机制的研究进展

由于线粒体能敏感地感受机体内氧浓度的变化,缺氧时会影响线粒体氧化磷酸化过程中电子传递链的正常功能,抑制ATP生成,产生大量活性氧(ROS)。ROS蓄积导致氧化损伤细胞内脂质、DNA和蛋白质等大分子物质,线粒体肿胀,通透性转换孔开放,释放细胞色素C等促凋亡因子,最终严重影响细胞的存活。因此这些功能异常或受损线粒体是缺氧应激状态下细胞是否存活的危险因素,及时清除这些线粒体,对维持线粒体质量、数量及细胞稳态具有重要意义。线粒体自噬是近年来发现的细胞适应缺氧的一种防御性代谢过程,它通过自噬途径选择性清除损伤、衰老和过量产生ROS的线粒体,促进线粒体更新和循环利用,确保细胞内线粒体功能稳定,保护缺氧应激下细胞的正常生长发挥重要的调节作用。本文就线粒体自噬在缺氧条件下发生过程、参与相关蛋白及调节机制等方面研究进行了综述。     

线粒体在铁死亡中的形态特征和作用

铁死亡是铁依赖性的脂质过氧化作用驱动的一种独特的细胞死亡方式。与细胞凋亡、自噬性程序性细胞死亡和细胞焦亡等细胞死亡方式不同，铁死亡的主要特征是线粒体形态的改变，包括线粒体膜变得致密并伴随体积变小，以及外膜破裂和线粒体嵴的减少或消失。线粒体作为细胞代谢的核心，是铁代谢、脂质代谢和能量代谢中的重要细胞器。但是，线粒体如何参与铁死亡并在其进程中发挥怎样的作用仍存在争议。本文综述了现有对铁死亡发生和防御机制的认识，并且对线粒体在铁死亡进程中的促进和抑制作用进行了描述和分析，包括线粒体三羧酸循环和糖酵解、线粒体活性氧、线粒体脂质代谢对铁死亡的积极驱动过程，以及通过线粒体铁蛋白、线粒体二氢乳酸脱氢酶等分子对线粒体脂质过氧化物解毒并抑制铁死亡的作用机制。最后补充说明了其他涉及铁死亡的线粒体分子调控机制。本文通过综述线粒体在铁死亡进程中的最新研究进展，旨在对深入了解铁死亡中线粒体的功能及其对铁死亡发生发展的作用机制，为细胞生物学基础研究及临床相关疾病的研究提供理论依据和参考。     

活性氧诱导细胞凋亡

细胞凋亡是细胞主动的衰老和死亡方式。细胞凋亡过程极其复杂,其生化机制还不十分清楚。用活性氧如H_2O_2、ONOO及脂质过氧化物等可直接诱导某些细胞发生凋亡,抗氧化剂对细胞凋亡有抑制作用。细胞内产生活性氧的部位主要是线粒体电子传递链、黄嘌呤—黄嘌呤氧化酶途径、磷脂酶A_2激活的花生四烯酸代谢途径及精氨酸-NO合成酶途径。外源性活性氧或通过内源性活性氧的生成,导致细胞内氧化还原状态的失衡,诱导某些基因的表达,引起凋亡。     

铁自噬与铁死亡及其相关疾病

铁是血红素、线粒体呼吸链复合体和各种生物酶的重要辅助因子,参与氧气运输、氧化还原反应和代谢物合成等生物过程。铁蛋白(ferritin)是一种铁存储蛋白质,通过储存和释放铁来维持机体内铁平衡。铁自噬(ferritinophagy)作为一种选择性自噬方式,介导铁蛋白降解释放游离铁,参与细胞内铁含量的调控。适度铁自噬维持细胞内铁含量稳定,但铁自噬过度会释放出大量游离铁。通过芬顿 (Fenton)反应催化产生大量的活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS),发生脂质过氧化造成细胞受损。因此,铁自噬在维持细胞生理性铁稳态中发挥至关重要的作用。核受体共激活因子4 (nuclear receptor co-activator 4, NCOA4)被认为是铁自噬的关键调节因子,与铁蛋白靶向结合,并传递至溶酶体中降解释放游离铁,其介导的铁自噬构成了铁代谢的重要组成部分。最新研究表明,NCOA4受体内铁含量、自噬、溶酶体和低氧等因素的调控。NCOA4介导的铁蛋白降解与铁死亡(ferroptosis)有关。铁死亡是自噬性细胞死亡过程。铁自噬通过调节细胞铁稳态和细胞ROS生成,成为诱导铁死亡的上游机制,与贫血、神经退行性疾病、癌症、缺血/再灌注损伤与疾病的发生发展密切相关。本文针对NCOA4介导的铁自噬通路在铁死亡中的功能特征,探讨NCOA4在这些疾病中的作用,可能为相关疾病的治疗提供启示。     

铁死亡调控机制与肿瘤发生与治疗的研究进展

铁死亡是一种不同于凋亡与坏死的新细胞死亡方式,它与铁代谢及氧化损伤具有高度相关性,并以胞质和脂质的活性氧明显增多、线粒体体积变小以及膜密度增厚为死亡标志。近来研究者发现铁死亡在许多疾病中发挥着重要的作用。本文通过对铁死亡及其机制的总结分析,阐明铁死亡及其机制在肿瘤发生与治疗中相关研究和最新进展。     

谷胱甘肽在肝脏疾病相关信号通路中的作用及研究进展

谷胱甘肽(GSH)是细胞内主要的抗氧剂和氧化还原、细胞信号调节器,它能还原过氧化氢、清除活性氧(ROS)和含氮自由基使细胞免受氧化应激损伤。不管细胞内是否存在ROS氧化细胞蛋白,谷胱甘肽均能诱导氧化还原反应发生转变,进一步使信号传导功能及转录因子分子功能发生改变。大量实验表明,ROS和GSH在多条细胞信号调节通路中发挥着重要作用。主要阐述了Fas、TNF-α和NF-κB信号通路及线粒体凋亡途径及GSH在这些通路中的作用。尤其是线粒体GSH耗竭能诱导线粒体内ROS显著增加,从而损害细胞生物能量和诱导线粒体通透性转换孔开启。根据线粒体损害程度,NF-κB信号通路可被抑制,肝细胞也可能经历不同的死亡模式(凋亡或坏死)并对刺激细胞死亡信号(如TNF-α)也更敏感。这些过程涉及许多肝脏疾病的发病机理。     

叶绿体中活性氧的产生和清除机制

正常情况下植物细胞内活性氧（reactive oxygen species ROS）的产生和清除是平衡的,但是,一旦植物遭受环境胁迫,ROS的积累超过抗氧化剂防护系统清除能力,就会产生氧胁迫损伤细胞。由于叶绿体作为光合作用的场所与其他细胞器相比更易遭受氧化胁迫的伤害。因此,叶绿体进化了更强的防御机制调控电子传递链的氧化还原平衡及叶绿体基质中的氧化还原状态。活性氧具有双重效应．高浓度的活性氧对植物细胞有很强的毒害作用,低浓度时可充当信号分子参与植物的某些防卫反应过程,本文就叶绿体中活性氧的产生（三线态叶绿素、PSI和PSI I电子传递链）、网络清除（抗氧化剂,SOD,As—Glu循环系统,硫氧还蛋白）机制以及功能作用进行了综述。     

胞红蛋白研究进展

胞红蛋白(Cytoglobin,CYGB)是珠蛋白家族中的一员,在脊椎动物的器官,组织和细胞中有广泛表达。它具有一个紧密的双螺旋结构,不仅具有储存和运输氧气的功能,还参与胶原合成、酶促反应、清除细胞内活性氧、基因调控等过程。此外,胞红蛋白在体外能抑制癌细胞的生长,从而引起研究人员的高度关注。本文重点对CYGB的结构、分布、基因调控和功能、参与病理状态以及潜在的临床应用价值等方面展开综述。     

铁蛋白介导细胞凋亡的作用机制

铁蛋白是生物体广泛存在且高度保守的可溶性蛋白质,在铁离子稳态维持、胚胎发育调控、细胞增殖以及细胞凋亡等过程中具有重要作用。过量的铁离子能通过芬顿反应产生活性氧,过量的活性氧会造成氧化应激并直接损害DNA、脂质和蛋白质,最终导致细胞凋亡。铁蛋白能够螯合铁离子,进而保护细胞免受氧化应激诱导的细胞凋亡。铁蛋白表达受阻时,细胞内不稳定铁水平升高并诱导氧化应激,最终造成细胞凋亡。同时,氧化应激可在转录和翻译水平调节铁蛋白表达,升高的铁蛋白则参与维持机体氧化还原水平的稳定。本文主要从线粒体途径和死亡受体途径阐明铁蛋白介导细胞凋亡的分子机制,为深入研究铁蛋白功能以及相关疾病治疗提供理论支持。     

植物过氧化物酶体在活性氧信号网络中的作用

过氧化物酶体是高度动态、代谢活跃的细胞器,主要参与脂肪酸等脂质的代谢及产生和清除不同的活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)。ROS是细胞有氧代谢的副产物。当胁迫长期作用于植物,过量的ROS会引起氧胁迫,损害细胞结构和功能的完整性,导致细胞代谢减缓,活性降低,甚至死亡;但低浓度的ROS则作为分子信号,感应细胞ROS/氧化还原变化,从而触发由环境因素导致的过氧化物酶体动力学以及依赖ROS信号网络改变而产生快速、特异性的应答。ROS也可以通过直接或间接调节细胞生长来控制植物的发育,是植物发育的重要调节剂。此外,过氧化物酶体的动态平衡由ROS、过氧化物酶体蛋白酶及自噬过程调节,对于维持细胞的氧化还原平衡至关重要。本文就过氧化物酶体中ROS的产生和抗氧化剂的调控机制进行综述,以期为过氧化物酶体如何感知环境变化,以及在细胞应答中,ROS作为重要信号分子的研究提供参考。     

Cytoglobin promotes sensitivity to ferroptosis by regulating p53-YAP1 axis in colon cancer cells

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent mode of non-apoptotic cell death characterized by accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). As a regulator of ROS, cytoglobin (CYGB) plays an important role in oxygen homeostasis and acts as a tumour suppressor. However, the mechanism by which CYGB regulates cell death is largely unknown. Here, we show that CYGB overexpression increased ROS accumulation and disrupted mitochondrial function as determined by the oxygen consumption rate and membrane potential. Importantly, ferroptotic features with accumulated lipid ROS and malondialdehyde were observed in CYGB-overexpressing colorectal cancer cells. Moreover, CYGB significantly increased the sensitivity of cancer cells to RSL3- and erastin-induced ferroptotic cell death. Mechanically, both YAP1 and p53 were significantly increased based on the RNA sequencing. The knock-down of YAP1 alleviated production of lipid ROS and sensitivity to ferroptosis in CYGB overexpressed cells. Furthermore, YAP1 was identified to be inhibited by p53 knock-down. Finally, high expression level of CYGB had the close correlation with key genes YAP1 and ACSL4 in ferroptosis pathway in colon cancer based on analysis from TCGA data. Collectively, our results demonstrated a novel tumour suppressor role of CYGB through p53-YAP1 axis in regulating ferroptosis and suggested a potential therapeutic approach for colon cancer.     

Double-edge sword roles of iron in driving energy production versus instigating ferroptosis

Iron is vital for many physiological functions, including energy production, and dysregulated iron homeostasis underlies a number of pathologies. Ferroptosis is a recently recognized form of regulated cell death that is characterized by iron dependency and lipid peroxidation, and this process has been reported to be involved in multiple diseases. The mechanisms underlying ferroptosis are complex, and involve both well-described pathways (including the iron-induced Fenton reaction, impaired antioxidant capacity, and mitochondrial dysfunction) and novel interactions linked to cellular energy production. In this review, we examine the contribution of iron to diverse metabolic activities and their relationship to ferroptosis. There is an emphasis on the role of iron in driving energy production and its link to ferroptosis under both physiological and pathological conditions. In conclusion, excess reactive oxygen species production driven by disordered iron metabolism, which induces Fenton reaction and/or impairs mitochondrial function and energy metabolism, is a key inducer of ferroptosis.Subject terms: Cell biology, Biochemistry     

Mitochondria bridge HIF signaling and ferroptosis blockage in acute kidney injury

Ferroptosis, a form of regulated cell death, plays an important role in acute kidney injury (AKI). Previous studies have shown that prolyl hydroxylase domain protein (PHD) inhibitors that activate HIF signaling provide strong protection against AKI, which is characterized by marked cell death. However, the relationship between PHD inhibition/HIF signaling and ferroptosis in AKI has not been elucidated. Here, we review recent studies to explore the issue. First, we will review the literature concerning the functions of HIF in promoting mitophagy, suppressing mitochondrial respiration and modulating redox homeostasis. Second, we will describe the current understanding of ferroptosis and its role in AKI, particularly from the perspective of mitochondrial dysfunction. Finally, we will discuss the possibility that mitochondria link PHD inhibition/HIF signaling and ferroptosis in AKI. In conclusion, we propose that HIF may protect renal cells against ferroptosis in AKI by reducing mitochondrial oxidative stress and damage.Subject terms: Cell biology, Kidney diseases     

The role of extracellular vesicles in iron homeostasis and ferroptosis: Focus on musculoskeletal diseases

Iron homeostasis is crucial for maintaining proper cellular function, and its disruption is considered one of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying musculoskeletal diseases. Under conditions of oxidative stress, the accumulation of cellular iron overload and lipid peroxidation can lead to ferroptosis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), serving as mediators in the cell-to-cell communication, play an important role in regulating the outcome of cell ferroptosis. Growing evidence has proven that EV biogenesis and secretion are tightly associated with cellular iron export. Furthermore, different sources of EVs deliver diverse cargoes to bring about phenotypic changes in the recipient cells, either activating or inhibiting ferroptosis. Thus, delivering therapies targeting ferroptosis through EVs may hold significant potential for treating musculoskeletal diseases. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the role of EVs in iron homeostasis and ferroptosis, as well as their therapeutic applications in musculoskeletal diseases, and thereby provide valuable insights for both research and clinical practice.     

Regulation of reactive oxygen species generation in cell signaling

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) are thought to be byproducts of aerobic respiration with damaging effects on DNA, protein, and lipid. A growing body of evidence indicates, however, that ROS are involved in the maintenance of redox homeostasis and various cellular signaling pathways. ROS are generated from diverse sources including mitochondrial respiratory chain, enzymatic activation of cytochrome p450, and NADPH oxidases further suggesting involvement in a complex array of cellular processes. This review summarizes the production and function of ROS. In particular, how cytosolic and membrane proteins regulate ROS generation for intracellular redox signaling will be detailed.     

Glutathione and modulation of cell apoptosis

Apoptosis is a highly organized form of cell death that is important for tissue homeostasis, organ development and senescence. To date, the extrinsic (death receptor mediated) and intrinsic (mitochondria derived) apoptotic pathways have been characterized in mammalian cells. Reduced glutathione, is the most prevalent cellular thiol that plays an essential role in preserving a reduced intracellular environment. glutathione protection of cellular macromolecules like deoxyribose nucleic acid proteins and lipids against oxidizing, environmental and cytotoxic agents, underscores its central anti-apoptotic function. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species can oxidize cellular glutathione or induce its extracellular export leading to the loss of intracellular redox homeostasis and activation of the apoptotic signaling cascade. Recent evidence uncovered a novel role for glutathione involvement in apoptotic signaling pathways wherein post-translational S-glutathiolation of protein redox active cysteines is implicated in the potentiation of apoptosis. In the present review we focus on the key aspects of glutathione redox mechanisms associated with apoptotic signaling that includes: (a) changes in cellular glutathione redox homeostasis through glutathione oxidation or GSH transport in relation to the initiation or propagation of the apoptotic cascade, and (b) evidence for S-glutathiolation in protein modulation and apoptotic initiation.     

Tangeretin inhibits fungal ferroptosis to suppress rice blast

Flavonoids are polyphenolic secondary metabolites that function as signaling molecules, allopathic compounds, phytoalexins, detoxifying agents and antimicrobial defensive compounds in plants. Blast caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae is a serious disease affecting rice cultivation. In this study, we revealed that a natural flavonoid, tangeretin, substantially delays the formation of M. oryzae appressoria and blocks the development of blast lesions on rice plants. Our data suggest that tangeretin has antioxidant activity that interferes with conidial cell death/ferroptosis, which is critical for M. oryzae pathogenicity. Tangeretin showed a ferroptosis inhibition efficacy comparable to the well-established liproxstatin-1. Furthermore, overexpression of the NADPH oxidases NOX1 or NOX2 significantly decreased sensitivity toward tangeretin treatment, suggesting Nox-mediated lipid peroxidation as a possible target for tangeretin in regulating redox signaling and ferroptosis in M. oryzae. Our nursery and field tests showed that application of tangeretin can effectively mitigate overall disease symptoms and prevent leaf blast. Our study reveals the plant-derived fungal ferroptosis inhibitor tangeretin as a potential and novel antifungal agrochemical for the sustainable prevention of the devastating blast disease in important cereal crops.     

Mitochondria regulation in ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is recognized as a new form of regulated cell death which is initiated by severe lipid peroxidation relying on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and iron overload. This iron-dependent cell death manifests evident morphological, biochemical and genetic differences from other forms of regulated cell death, such as apoptosis, autophagy, necrosis and pyroptosis. Ferroptosis was primarily characterized by condensed mitochondrial membrane densities and smaller volume than normal mitochondria, as well as the diminished or vanished of mitochondria crista and outer membrane ruptured. Mitochondria take the center role in iron metabolism, as well as substance and energy metabolism as it’s the major organelle in iron utilization, catabolic and anabolic pathways. Interference of key regulators of mitochondrial lipid metabolism (e.g., ASCF2 and CS), iron homeostasis (e.g., ferritin, mitoferrin1/2 and NEET proteins), glutamine metabolism and other signaling pathways make a difference to ferroptotic sensitivity. Targeted induction of ferroptosis was also considered as a potential therapeutic strategy to some oxidative stress diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, ischemia-reperfusion injury, traumatic spinal cord injury. However, the pertinence between mitochondria and ferroptosis is still in dispute. Here we systematic elucidate the morphological characteristics and metabolic regulation of mitochondria in the regulation of ferroptosis.     

Nitrite augments glucose uptake in adipocytes through the protein kinase A-dependent stimulation of mitochondrial fusion

Though it is well accepted that adipose tissue is central in the regulation of glycemic homeostasis, the molecular mechanisms governing adipocyte glucose uptake remain unclear. Recent studies demonstrate that mitochondrial dynamics (fission and fusion) regulate lipid accumulation and differentiation in adipocytes. However, the role of mitochondrial dynamics in glucose homeostasis has not been explored. The nitric oxide oxidation products nitrite and nitrate are endogenous signaling molecules and dietary constituents that have recently been shown to modulate glucose metabolism, prevent weight gain, and reverse the development of metabolic syndrome in mice. Although the mechanism of this protection is unclear, the mitochondrion is a known subcellular target for nitrite signaling. Thus, we hypothesize that nitrite modulates mitochondrial dynamics and function to regulate glucose uptake in adipocytes. Herein, we demonstrate that nitrite significantly increases glucose uptake in differentiated murine adipocytes through a mechanism dependent on mitochondrial fusion. Specifically, nitrite promotes mitochondrial fusion by increasing the profusion protein mitofusin 1 while concomitantly activating protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates and inhibits the profission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Functionally, this signaling augments cellular respiration, fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial oxidant production, and glucose uptake. Importantly, inhibition of PKA or Drp1 significantly attenuates nitrite-induced mitochondrial respiration and glucose uptake. These findings demonstrate that mitochondria play an essential metabolic role in adipocytes, show a novel role for both nitrite and mitochondrial fusion in regulating adipocyte glucose homeostasis, and have implications for the potential therapeutic use of nitrite and mitochondrial modulators in glycemic regulation.