Brachymesophalangia V in Hottentot and “Cape Colored” children in Namibia (South West Africa) and South Africa

In order to determine the incidence of Brachymesophalangia V, an inspectional and metrical analysis was made of radiographs of 67 Nama-speaking Hottentots aged 2 to 17.5 years, and 210 Rehoboth Basters (in Namibia) and Cape Colored children (near Cape Town) aged 1.5 to 21 years. None of the children displayed cone-shaped epiphysis or early union, and none showed Brachymesophalangia V. It was confirmed that the incidence of Brachymesophalangia V is considerably higher in Mongoloid populations than in Caucasoid or Negroid groups, including Hottentots.     

The peak oxygen uptake of British children with reference to age, sex and sexual maturity

The purposes of this study were to provide baseline data on the peak oxygen consumption (VO2) of British children, aged 11-16 years and to examine the peak VO2 of children in relation to their pubertal stage of development. The peak VO2 of 226 boys and 194 girls was determined during either treadmill running or cycle ergometry. The sexual maturity of 320 of the children was estimated using Tanner's indices. Peak VO2 increased with chronological age in both sexes and from about the age of 12 years boys exhibited significantly higher (P less than 0.05) values than girls. Boys' peak VO2 in relation to body mass was consistent over the age range studied and was superior (P less than 0.05) to girls' values at all ages. It appears that mass-related peak VO2 is independent of sexual maturity in both sexes. The more mature boys demonstrated a significantly higher (P less than 0.05) peak VO2 (1.min-1) than the less mature boys on both ergometers. The more mature girls demonstrated significantly higher (P less than 0.05) peak VO2 (1.min-1) than the less mature girls only on the cycle ergometer. On both ergometers the differences between the peak VO2 of the girls and boys were more pronounced in the mature children whether expressed in relation to body mass or not. Comparison of the results with earlier data drawn from smaller samples failed to provide evidence to suggest that British children's peak VO2 has declined in recent years. No study with which to compare our maturity peak VO2 data appears to be available.     

Child growth and adult physique in Brazillan Xingu Indians

Data on stature, sitting height, biacromial width, and some other body measurements on 267 children and 363 adults of the Xingu Indians of Brazil have been analyzed. Adult height shows no significant decrease with age over an age range of 20–50 years, thus indicating the absence of secular changes. The average Xingu child seems to be around the twenty-fifth to fiftieth centile for height of British children (if our age estimates are correct) until about ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, but ends at below the third British centile as an adult. In sitting height, however, the Indians show substantially lower values, with children being at about the fifteenth centile until ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, while the adults are considerably below the British third centile. Other comparisons show that the Xingu are taller than Surinam Indians although of similar shoulder width. The lack of anthropometric data concerning South American Indian adults, and more especially children has been stressed. Investigations of these populations facing rapid acculturation and possible assimilation will form a baseline for the future work in public health as contacts with non-Indians increase.     

Height, weight, and lines of arrested growth in young Guatemalan children

A cross-sectional study of height, weight and skeletal maturity as judged from radiographs of hand and wrist, of 1,412 children under seven years of age (694 boys and 718 girls) living in rural Guatemala was performed. Height and weight were compared to standards prepared by the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP). Skeletal age was assessed by the Tanner-Whitehouse and the Greulich and Pyle methods. All x-rays were read by the senior author. The children surveyed were significantly shorter and lighter than well noruished Guatemalan children. Differences were evident by age six months and at a maximum by age five years. Both methods showed skeletal age to lag behind chronological age so that the Guatemalan rural children mature at slower rates than either the British children or the Ohio, U.S.A., children, from whom the two sets of standards were developed. Children of both sexes with radio-opaque transverse lines at the metaphysis showed a consistent tendency to be shorter than children without such lines. Boys but not girls showed similar trends for weight. In general, the data are consistent with the view that the physical development in boys is more severely retarded by an adverse environment than that of girls.     

Skeletal maturity of Japanese children in Western Kyushu

This paper describes the skeletal maturity status of Japanese children in Western Kyushu and its variation within Japanese populations. Hand-wrist skeletal maturity was assessed by the Tanner-Whitehouse (1975) (TW2) method from radiographs of 500 boys and 485 girls aged from 4 to 15 years. Western Kyushu children showed retarded skeletal maturity scores (RUS, carpals, and 20-bone) under the age of 12 years for boys and 10 years for girls, and thereafter they were advanced in relation to the British standard. Within Japanese populations the present sample showed delayed maturity compared to Tokyo children, but was close to that of Sapporo children throughout the age range studied. However, the expected effect of secular trend suggested skeletal maturity more advanced for Tokyo children and somewhat advanced one for Sapporo children compared to that of Western Kyushu children.     

The biocultural evolution of Khoisan populations of Southern Africa

The research presented here offers new information on the recent evolution of Khoisan populations of southern Africa through the new study of Holocene skeletons. When combined with subfossil and historical remains, these archeological specimens provide a skeletal record for the last 5000–9000 years of southern African prehistory. Multivariate statistical analyses of cranial measurements were used to determine patterns of morphological variation in the skeletal record with which hypotheses of biocultural evolution were tested. These analyses yielded the following results. First, the traditional distinction between Bushmen and Hottentots holds for recent inland individuals. Second, there is a suggestion of a morphologically distinct San population living on the coast of South Africa. The idea of a “Strandloper” population suggested by early scholars is here revived. The third result is that there is little evidence of complete population succession on the coast of South Africa, suggesting that there were no massive population movements associated with the spread of Hottentot pastoralism throughout southern Africa.     

Growth pattern of the Kamars--a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh,India

A cross sectional study of the physical growth status was made on 655 Kamar children (341 boys and 314 girls), aged 5 to 18 years, in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. The study aimed to find out the growth pattern of the Kamar children, which is considered to be a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh, India and was compared with another Indian tribe and the official data for all India (ICMR). Anthropometric measurements included height, weight, sitting height, biacromial diameter, biilliocrystal diameter, upper arm circumference, calf circumference and measurements of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds. All anthropometric measurements except skinfold thickness exhibit uniform increase with age in both sexes. However, when height and weight of the Kamar boys and girls were compared with the data for other tribes and for all India, the Kamar children (both boys and girls) indicated lower weight and height and the difference showed to be significant, for almost all ages. Kamar boys showed higher anthropometric values than girls in almost all measurements except in biilliocrystal diameter and in measured skinfolds. Poor socio-economic status of this primitive tribe may be one of the reasons for this poor growth pattern. However, in-depth study is necessary in order to arrive at any basic conclusions and to recommend any policy and interventions.     

Growth attainments of well-off chandigarh children: A mixed longitudinal study

Distance and velocity pattern of growth for body weight and height of 134 well-off Chandigarh boys aged 9–17 years, and 109 girls aged 9 to 16 years were studied following a mixedlongitudinal growth study design. For both body weight and height pattern-wise, Chandigarh boys showed close similarity with their American counterparts up to about 13 years of age, while girls did so till 12 years. Where after, Chandigarh children remained lighter and shorter than those of American origin and this differential may be explained on racial grounds rather than nutritional ones since all children included in this study remained free from dietary and other health related constraints. Marginally, higher height growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their other Indian counterparts during initial years of adolescence shows that Chandigarh children are in process of expressing their genetic growth potential to its full which has not yet been fully achieved. The rate (velocity) of weight and height growth in Chandigarh children remained substatially lower than their sex-matched British counterparts throught the period of study. PHV in boys measured 6.4 cm/yr. and 5.4 cm/yr. in girls. It was attained at the age of 11.5 years in girls and 12.5 years in boys. Peak weight velocity in boys averaged 3.7 kg/yr., while it measured 4.6 kg/yr. in girls. In girls (11.5 yr.), PWV too was attained earlier than boys (13.5 yr.) by two years. The shorter height and lighter weight growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their Western counterparts may be attributed to slower and lesser magnitude peak growth velocities recorded in Chandigarh children. The use of values presented has been recommended to monitor and assess growth attainments of Indian children residing in the Union Territory of Chandigarh.     

Extreme levels of underweight and stunting among pre-adolescent children of low socioeconomic class from Madhyamgram and Barasat, West Bengal, India

A cross-sectional study on 1206 children (788 boys, 618 girls) aged 1-12 years, belonging to low socioeconomic status, of Barasat and Madhyamgram, West Bengal, India, was undertaken to investigate age and sex variations in height and weight. It also evaluated the levels of underweight and stunting among them. Anthropometric measurements included weight and height. Weight-for-age (WA) and height-for-age (HA) <-2 z-scores were used to evaluate underweight (UW) and stunting (ST), respectively, following the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) Guidelines. Results showed that boys aged 4 and 11 years were significantly heavier than girls of corresponding ages. Boys aged 7 years were significantly taller than girls of the same age. Significant (p < 0.001) age differences existed in mean weight and height in boys (weight: F = 336.762; height: F = 565.160) as well as girls (weight: F = 275.320; height = 498.715). Results also revealed that the mean z-scores of WA (WAZ) and HA (HAZ) were less than (negative values) those of NCHS for both sexes at all ages. The overall (age combined) rate of UW was 60.4% and 51.3%; while that of ST was 51.7% and 48.4%, in boys and girls, respectively. Based on World Health Organization classification of severity of malnutrition, the prevalence of UW and ST were very high (> or = 30%) in both sexes. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the prevalence of UW and ST were very high among the subjects. Since the nutritional status of the subjects is not satisfactory, there is need for immediate supplementary nutrition.     

Plasma androgens in children and adolescents. Part I: control subjects

In this cross-sectional study, plasma levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), delta 4-androstenedione (delta 4) and testosterone (T) were measured by RIA in 232 normal subjects of both sexes, aged 2 weeks to 20 years. The results were analyzed in relation to chronological age, body surface and pubertal stage. High levels of plasma androgens were found in newborn infants of both sexes. After 3 months of age, androgen levels were uniformly low and rose with increasing chronological age and body surface. The first significant increase in mean androgen levels was found for DHEA-S. It occurred after 6 years of age in girls and after 8 years in boys. DHEA and T rose in both sexes after 8 years of age. delta 4 increased steadily with chronological age and body surface in both sexes. When androgen levels were related to body surface, a first significant increase was observed above 1.00 m2 for the four androgens, in both boys and girls. Above 1.20 m2 and 12 years of age, girls had higher mean levels of DHEA-S, DHEA and delta 4, but lower mean T levels than boys of the same body surface and chronological age. Before puberty, a positive correlation was found in both sexes between the plasma androgen levels on the one hand, and both chronological age and body surface on the other. Plasma androgen levels markedly increased at stage P2 in both sexes, and further increased with pubertal development. During puberty, girls had higher plasma delta 4, but lower plasma T levels than boys of the same pubertal stage. Plasma DHEA-S and DHEA levels were similar in both sexes. In contrast to the plasma androgens, plasma cortisol levels did not show any change in relation either to chronological age or to body surface or pubertal development. Body surface appears to be as good a discriminating factor as chronological age, at least in young children. It also appears from this study that DHEA-S is a good guide for the clinical evaluation of adrenal maturation and may be very useful in evaluating patients with growth or pubertal disturbances.     

Bone maturation reflects the secular trend in growth

The aim of this study was to compare a series of X-rays from the mid-1990s with another taken in the mid-1980s in order to test the possibility that environmental causes affect the skeletal maturation. The first group of subjects included a total of 1,057 girls and 1, 055 boys participating in a project for Japan and China health research in 1986. The second group of subjects included a total of 382 girls and 629 boys participating in a project for bone mineral density research in 1996. The skeletal maturity score using the Tanner-Whitehouse 2-RUS method was used as the fundamental datum. This score was used to represent each group. The Wilcoxon's rank sum test was applied to examine the significance of the difference between the 1986 and the 1996 groups. The 1996 children had not matured more than the 1986 children; children in both groups reached the given scores at almost the same ages. In girls, there was little difference between the groups at 7 years of age, but it declined from 8 years of age onward. Some apparent differences arose at ages 14 and 15, but ceased by age 16 in girls. In boys, no differences were found in those aged from 7 to 17 years, except for 12-year-olds. We did not detect much of a difference in bone maturation between the 1986 and 1996 groups of children, and no differences in height during the same period. Our findings suggest that bone maturation reflects the secular trend in growth.     

Assessment of the physical development and physical fitness of children and youths with simple body height deficiency

The aim of this work is an analysis of the process of growth and an assessment of the physical fitness of children and youths with short stature. The material contains results of a long-term investigation of the growth of boys and girls with the diagnosis: simple body height deficiency (hypostatura simplex). The investigation was carried out in Swietokrzyskie Province, Poland, in the years 1980-1997. It comprised 471 individuals: 143 girls aged 5-18 years and 328 boys aged 5-19 years. A different degree of the skeleton age is connected with a different dynamic of growth of short-stature girls and boys. Pubescent increase in the rate of growth occurs in individuals with a considerable retardation of the bone age later, particularly among boys. The growth process lasts longer in them, therefore, the final body height is achieved later and it is greater in individuals whose bone age is concordant with the calendar age. The level of physical working capacity of short-stature children does not show any significant difference in comparison with that in individuals with correct body height, and relative values of the indicators of physical fitness, related to body mass, are even higher in short-stature children. Individuals with a greater body height deficiency are characterised by a lower level of physical fitness.     

Gender-specific growth patterns of transversal body dimensions in Croatian children and youth (2 to 18 years of age)

In a cross-sectional study of growth, 5,260 healthy children of both sexes from Zagreb (Croatia) aged 2 to 18 years were measured. Six transversal body dimensions were studied: biacromial, transverse chest, antero-posterior chest, biiliocristal, bicondylar humerus and bicondylar femur diamters. A significant increase in body diameters has been observed until the age of 14 to 15 in girls and until the age of 16 in boys, showing that girls have a 1 to 2 years shorter period of growth. Compared to boys of the same age, they achieved larger amounts of final transversal bone size throughout the whole growth period. The most pronounced example was the knee diameter that in girls attained 95% of adult size as early as the age of 10. In both genders, the adult size is achieved earlier in widths of the extremities than in those of the trunk. The studied transversal body segments showed different growth dynamics, which is gender-specific. While sexual dimorphism in pelvic and shoulder diameters emerged with pubertal spurt, gender differences in chest and extremities' diameters started early in life. In all ages, boys had larger chest, elbow and knee diameters. In pubertal age boys gained a significantly larger biacromial diameter (from the age of 13 onwards), while girls exceeded them in biiliocristal diameter (from 10 to 14 years). The findings of gender differences were compared to those reported for other European populations and their growth patters were discussed comparing viewpoints.     

Bone growth and mineralisation in children aged 4 to 10 years

The relationships between bone width and mineral content and age, sex, height and weight were studied in 420 children aged 4–10 years living in Cambridge using single photon absorptiometry. The relationship of bone width with bone mineral content was significantly different between the sexes after adjusting for differences in body size. In addition, bone width in boys was found to be greater for a given height and weight; changes in weight had a greater effect on bone width in boys than in girls. Prediction equations for bone width and mineral content based on height and weight are given, which should enhance the application of single photon absorptiometry in clinical practice.     

Gender differences in fat patterning in children living in Ankara

Body composition is an excellent indicator for assessing obesity and nutritional status of both individuals and populations. Youth obesity has important health and social implications, because a large proportion of adult obesity has its origin in childhood. Numerous studies report that adverse levels of cardiovascular diseases risk factors are associated with adiposity in children. Concerning the Turkish population there is up to now only limited information with regard to adiposity in children. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the anthropometric and body composition characteristics and to investigate sex differences in fat patterning including fat distribution in a group of children living in Ankara. The present study evaluated the body composition of 332 boys and 269 girls aged between 8 and 11 years, attending public schools. It was carried out by a cross-sectional study and was focused on that anthropometric variables, which reflect body fat and fat-free mass. Anthropometric measurements including height, weight, triceps and subscapular skinfolds thickness were carried out on these children. The body mass index (BMI) was also calculated. The measurements were used to estimate the two-compartment model of body composition: fat-free mass (FFM) and body fat (BF) from skinfold equations. The mean fat percentage in boys is highest at 11 years (16.8%) and lowest at 10 years (15.6%). In girls these figures come to 18.2% and 17.1%, respectively. Girls of these age groups have a significantly larger percentage of body fat and skinfold thickness. At this young age there is therefore clear evidence of sexual dimorphism in fat patterning, as girls are showing a greater subcutaneous adiposity, which is mainly contributed by the triceps fat. The body fat (kg) increases in both sexes all over the investigated age groups. The Pearson correlation matrix showed a high significant relation between the anthropometric measurements (p < 0.01). The present study confirms the findings that sexual dimorphism of fat patterning in children is to be seen in the age of 8 - 11 years. It furthermore presents basic data of body composition, which could serve as reference data in other studies on the Turkish population.     

Growth and somatotype patterns of manus children,territory of Papua and New Guinea: Application of a modified somatotype method to the study of growth patterns

The growth and somatotype patterns of Manus children, Territory of Papua and New Guinea, reflected in anthropometric measurements and somatotype photographs, is reported for 438 children, ranging from 15 months of age to maturity. Somatotype distributions and individual somatotype photographs indicate little difference between boys and girls from age 1 to 4 years; between age 5 and 9 years boys shift toward higher second component ratings; between age 10 and 18 years boys shift toward higher second and third component ratings, while girls shift toward higher first and third component ratings. Four sample somatotype photographs are representative of the population at age 10 and 14 years, and show age and sex characters easily noted visually. Comparison of height, weight and subscapula skinfold values show that the Manus children resemble the Kaiapit and Bundi children of the New Guinea highlands populations reported by Malcolm in the form of their growth curves but not in growth rates. Manus children grow more slowly than the British, but faster than the Kaiapit and Bundi children. While low skinfold values and height/weight ratios derived from means for height and weight suggest somatotypic similarity of the Manus, Kaiapit and Bundi populations, somatotype photographs are needed for confirmation. Lacking historical information and genetic evidence, we can speculare that diet, nutrition, climate and perhaps physical activity are factors which influence the growth patterns of these populations. The protein intake derived from fish and other seafood may be an important factor in the relatively fast growth and earlier maturation of the Manus. Malcolm thinks that low protein intake plays an important role with the Kaiapit and Bundi, but does not rule out survival value of slow growth and short stature.     

Growth charts for Croatian school children and secular trends in past twenty years

The aim of this study was to construct new Croatian growth charts for body height and weight of boys and girls aged 6.5 to 18.5 years and to investigate differences between our and pre-existing studies. Analysis was based on a multistage stratified sample representative for school children aged 6.5 to 18.5, 6046 boys and 5656 girls. Growth reference was constructed using LMS method. Present results demonstrated an increment of body height and weight during the last two decades. Highest increase of body height is in boys aged 13-14 years 6.5 cm, in girls aged 12 years is 5.0 cm. Highest increase of body weight is in 16 year age group of boys 8.7 kg and in 11-12 year age group of girls 5.2 kg. In conclusion, regarding presence of secular trend because previously used growth charts in Croatia are obsolete.     

Cytogenetic studies in the Hottentot population: count distribution, report of a fragment, and preliminary description of morphology

As part of a general investigation of the biology and morphological variation of the Hottentot population, this study deals with the karyotype analysis of a sample from that population. The modal number overall is 46; however, a high percentage of aneuploid cells, both hypomodal and hypermodal, is found. The rate of increase of aneuploidy with age is considered in detail. The rates for hypomodality with age for Hottentot females are positive and significantly higher than those for other populations previously reported. A fragment of chromatin is described. The fragment occurs in the two Hottentot males and in 22 of the 23 Hottentot females studied. Cells from the one non-steatopygic female successfully cultured show fragments, as do cells from a Bushman female. In the Hottentots the average incidence of the single anomaly equals or exceeds the incidence of the total of all chromosome lesions in published studies giving control data. Metaphases from five individuals are figured, and several unusual features of the chromosomes are described. The findings are discussed in terms of functional integration at a cytological level karyotype pictures to be expected in hybridization between demes long isolated, and microevolution of the Hottentot population.     

Assessment of developmental age: cross-sectional analysis of secondary sexual characteristics

The developmental age of a growing person does not necessarily correspond to his or her chronological age. The two sexes differ considerably in their developmental tempo, and there are tempo differences also within the same sex. Early developers appear older, late developers appear younger than their chronological age might suggest. Based on a sample of 8675 German boys and 8689 girls of the same ethnicity, aged between 8 and 17 years sex differences of height, weight and secondary sexual characteristics are analyzed. Girls on average, develop faster than boys. Their peak of highest increments of height occurs at 10.2 years and is positioned early within the events of sexual maturity. The peak of highest increments of height in boys occurs at age 11.2 on average and is positioned relatively early within the sequences of secondary sexual characteristics. Maturing development starts with breast-stage 2 in girls at age 10.9 and penis-stage as well as scrotum-stage 2 in boys at age 11.1 on average. The development of pubic hair follows and menarche in girls at age 12.7, respectively spermarche in boys at age 13.8, marks the border to theoretical fertility. There are remarkable differences in the tempo of sexual development between the different types of body shape. In girls the pyknomorphic types are the early developers. Breast stage 2 for instance occurs at age 10.1 in the stocky and corpulent pyknomorphic girls and at age 13.0 in the tall and slender leptomorphic girls. This is different in boys. Here are much less differences between the types of body shape, but generally it is the leptomorphic type, at whom the stages of his secondary sexual characteristics are developed a little earlier.     

Growth and malnutrition of rural Zimbabwean children (6-17 years of age)

The rural environment is an important factor in delayed growth in developing countries. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of poor rural living conditions on the growth of a Shona sample in Zimbabwe. In total, 982 subjects aged 6-17 years were analyzed. Mean values of height, weight, skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, biceps, medial calf), cormic index, body mass index (BMI), arm composition (total upper arm area, upper arm muscle area, arm fat area, and arm fat index), fat percentage (%F), centripetal fat ratio (CFR), and the contribution of each skinfold to the adiposity of the trunk and upper limbs are presented. Weight, height, BMI, cormic index, SSCP, TRCP, arm circumference, and arm composition are compared with NHANES percentiles. Boys and girls showed stunting and underweight at ages 11-15 and 8-15, respectively; boys presented particularly severe malnutrition and their means of height and weight were below the 10th percentile. The means of arm circumference, UMA, UFA, and TRCP were below the 15th percentile in both sexes. The contribution of the skinfolds generally showed an overall prevalence of TRCP in both sexes; the contribution of SSCP was prevalent only for the 16- to 17-year-old boys. Males presented a higher CFR than girls after 14 years while females showed an irregular pattern. There was a high incidence of brachycormia and mesocormia in females and males, respectively. Height, weight, and BMI were similar to the values observed in other sub-Saharan countries, although body size was slightly larger than in South Africa and smaller than in Tanzania. The results provide a useful database for future comparisons.