Movement patterns of yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus): Central positioning of walking infants

According to DeVore and Washburn's protection theory of the spatial organization of moving baboon troops, walking infants, which are among the most vulnerable and least self-sufficient of all troop members, should tend to occupy the troop's center. The protection theory is an ultimate hypothesis from which persistently recurring behavior is expected. Two troops living in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, were compared with troops studied at other locations. Walking infants tended to occupy the center of their troop and to be underrepresented primarily in the frontal portion of progressions and secondarily in the rear. The lead position of progressions was analyzed using 82 walking infants, 11 troops, three locations, two species, and three studies involving eight or more observers employing somewhat different procedures at the different study sites. Despite so many opportunities for variation, 1,317 observations from these 11 troops did not produce a single instance in which a walking infant led the troop and very few in which one was in the frontal twelfth.     

Movement patterns of yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus): Sex differences in juvenile development toward adult patterns

Age-sex differences in the sociospatial positioning of progressing baboon troops have been postulated as an important, protective aspect of baboon adaptation to a terrestrial existence. The protection theory is an ultimate hypothesis which can be disproven by showing that the postulated age-sex positioning fails to occur. Alternatively, confidence in the protection theory can be increased if the postulated positioning persists across several troops despite significant opportunities for variation, and if progression order is shown to be linked to biological phenomena such as sex differences in physical maturation. Data from 73 individually identified, free-ranging juveniles of both sexes were compared with previous findings. Small juveniles of several troops were more centrally located than large juveniles. Large juveniles males were more toward the front than were large juvenile females. As male walking infants and juveniles aged, a change in positioning (i.e., location) occurred: males were located increasingly toward the front of progressions. Comparable data from females suggest that the adult female pattern had begun to form among large juveniles. Data are consistent with an ultimate protection theory.     

Carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes in nine troops of Kenya baboons, Papio cynocephalus (Linnaeus 1766)

The distributions of alleles at the carbonic anhydrase I (CA I = CA B) and carbonic anhydrase II (CA II = CA C) loci in nine troops of Papio cynocephalus were determined. Two alleles were found at the CA I locus, and three at the CA II locus; the frequencies were: CA I^a = 0.856; CA I^b = 0.144; CA II^a = 0.784; CA II^b = 0.209; CA II^c = 0.007. Results of tests for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, homogeneity tests, and calculations of migration rates were used in support of the interpretation that migration and genetic drift may affect the distribution of alleles at the CA I locus and that selection is the process responsible for the distribution of alleles at the CA II locus.     

Insect and meat eating among infant and adult baboons (Papio cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania

It has been suggested that baboon predation upon vertebrates may tend to peak in the dry season because insect food is then less available, and that males obtain animal nutrients primarily from vertebrates whereas other troop members obtain them primarily from invertebrates. The development of meat and insect eating by 22 male and 24 female infants studied for 25 months was compared with that of 18 male and 46 female adults studied for 37 months. Systematic sampling allowed quantitative comparisons between meat and insect eating, infants and adults, and males and females. Infants ate no meat, but their insect eating began early and increased steadily during the first year of life. In comparison with insect foods, meat was a minor ingredient of the adult's diet. Insect eating occurred less during dry than during rainy months, but meat eating was spread across the year. Reliable sex differences in insect eating did not occur. The findings were related to theories offered to explain the attractiveness of animal foods to primates and to the suggestion that a sex difference in predatory inclinations of hominid ancestors may have been a preadaptation underlying the eventual emergence of male hunting and female gathering.     

Analysis of infant handling and the effects of female rank among Tana River adult female yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) using permutation/randomization tests.

Infant handling has been documented in numerous species. Among cercopithecines, interaction motivations are reported to range from aunting to kidnapping; these interactions are often distressful for both mother and infant. Here we examine handling by adult female yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) at the Tana River National Primate Reserve, Kenya, using a relatively new, computer-intensive statistical approach of permutation/randomization tests to deal with repeated measures effects and a skewed sample. We hypothesized 1) a tendency for handlers to handle the infants of females ranked similarly or lower than themselves, and 2) more successful infant handling by higher-ranked females, particularly with very young infants. We collected focal data on 23 females (11 mother-infant pairs) over an 11-mo period, with a total of 303 attempted and/or successful "handles" utilized in the permutation analyses. The general patterns apparent in the data seemed to support our hypotheses. However, the permutation tests showed that while females are somewhat more likely to attempt to handle the infants of females ranked "same or lower" than themselves, lower-ranked females are able to prevent more than three-fourths of the attempted interactions, and there is no statistically significant trend for females to successfully handle these infants. Further refinement of the analyses showed no significant tendencies for females to handle those infants ranked "lower" or "immediately lower" than themselves, casting doubt on the significant finding for "same or lower" attempts. Further, there was no significant effect for higher-ranked females to successfully handle an infant during its first month. Thus, rank does not seem to offer any privileges in terms of handling an infant in this population. We believe the permutation tests are an effective way to analyze repeated measures data and offer a more sensitive analysis tool for determining true significance.     

Radioimmunoassay of somatomedin-C in the baboon (Papio cynocephalus): A comparison of multiple techniques of measurement

This study was undertaken to assess the nature of somatomedin-C (SM-C) in baboon (Papio cynocephalus) blood and to compare various methods for estimating SM-C concentrations. Parallel dose-response curves were obtained with normal baboon serum, normal human serum, and purified SM-C. Recovery of purified SM-C added to baboon serum over a wide dosage range (n = 17) was 111 ± 12%, with slightly better recovery at higher potencies. Chromatography of normal baboon serum on Sephadex G-200 at neutral pH produced a profile similar to that observed in the human, as did samples chromatographed on Sephadex G-50 in acid. Although the SM-C content in acid chromatographed plasma was approximately 2.5 times higher than in native unprocessed plasma, there was excellent correlation between the values (r = 0.9143, p < 0.0001). The SM-C in baboon plasma which had been preincubated with glycine HCl was approximately twice that of unprocessed plasma, but the correlation between the two methods was excellent (r = 0.9593, p < 0.0001). The correlation between values obtained after simple acid-ethanol extraction and those observed in unextracted plasma were also significant (r = 0.7689, p < 0.0001). Following a series of four injections of human growth hormone (hGH) to a normal baboon, plasma SM-C rose approximately sevenfold above the initial concentration and returned to basal levels five days after the final injection. These studies show that although the radioimmunoassay (RIA) for SM-C in unprocessed baboon plasma does not measure all of the SM-C present, it provides a reliable index of the total SM-C concentration and reflects GH status in the baboon.     

Knuckle walking by a baboon (Papio cynocephalus).

This paper describes the development of a knuckle walking mode of locomotion by a free-living yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Some implications of this occurrence for theories of the evolution of knuckle walking are discussed.     

Gm and Inv studies on baboons, Papio cynocephalus: analysis of serum samples from Kenya, Ethiopia and South Africa.

Serum samples from 526 baboons (Papio cynocephalus) from 10 troops from the Laikipia district of northern Kenya, from 60 baboons from two troops from the Awash National Park, central Ethiopia, and from 127 baboons from South Africa were tested for Gm and Inv allotypes. Four of the 10 troops from Kenya formed a western cluster and six formed an eastern cluster. The clusters were separated by approximately 10 miles. The samples were tested for Gm (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 24) and for Inv (1, 2, 3). All samples were negative for Gm (2, 6, 14, 16, 24). All from Kenya and Ethiopia were negative for Inv (2), and all were positive for Gm (11, 17) and for Inv (3). The south African samples differed from the others in that 10 were negative for Gm (11) and four were positive for Inv (2). Taking all animals into account, polymorphism was present for Gm (1, 3, 5, 11, 13, 15, 21) and for Inv (1, 2). No two Kenya troops had the same array of phenotypes or of haplotypes, but the four western troops were more similar to each other than to the six eastern troops. Three haplotypes were present in the eastern troops that were not present in the western troops and five were present in the western troops that were not present in the eastern troops. Five haplotypes appeared in at least some troops of each cluster of troops. The samples from each of the two troops from Ethiopia show the same three phenotypes but with significantly different frequencies. It is suggested that the variation in haplotype frequencies observed among the 10 troops from Kenya is the result of a founder effect deriving largely from fission of a large troop into two smaller troops. The data show that speculations about the evolutionary origin of the allotypes are premature. For most species, too few animals have been tested and except for those in this study their origins are not known. Finally, the samples have been from too restricted an area.     

Failure of the prostaglandin F2 alpha analogue, cloprostenol, to induce functional luteolysis in the olive baboon (Papio cynocephalus anubis)

The prostaglandin F2 alpha analogue, cloprostenol, which is an effective luteolytic agent in the common marmoset, was administered intramuscularly to olive baboons to determine if it possessed luteolytic properties in this species. The results showed that functional luteolysis was not induced when cloprostenol was administered during the mid- to late luteal phase or during early pregnancy.     

Fetal blood sampling in baboons (Papio spp.): Important procedural aspects and literature review

Background  The baboons ( Papio cynocephalus ) have similarities with human placentation and fetal development. Fetal blood sampling allows investigators to assess fetal condition at a specific point in gestation as well as transplacental transfer of medications. Unfortunately, assessing fetal status during gestation has been difficult and fetal instrumentation associated with high rate of pregnancy loss. Our objectives are to describe the technique of ultrasound guided cordocentesis (UGC) in baboons, report post-procedural outcomes, and review existing publications.
Methods  This is a procedural paper describing the technique of UGC in baboons. After confirming pregnancy and gestational age via ultrasound, animals participating in approved research protocols that required fetal assessment underwent UGC.
Results  We successfully performed UGC in four animals (five samples) using this technique. Animals were sampled in the second and third trimesters with fetal blood sampling achieved by sampling a free cord loop, placental cord insertion site or the intrahepatic umbilical vein. All procedures were without complication and these animals delivered at term.
Conclusions  Ultrasound guided fetal umbilical cord venipuncture is a useful and safe technique to sample the fetal circulation with minimal risk to the fetus or mother. We believe this technique could be used for repeated fetal venous blood sampling in the baboons.     

The waning of dependence in infant free-ranging yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park

Development toward independence during the early years of baboon life is reflected in the infant's transition from riding on its mother to walking on its own during progressions from one location to another. This transition was studied during the first year of life in 55 infants from two differently sized troops living in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. There was a nearly linear transition in the first year from almost 100% ventral riding to almost 100% walking. The amount of dorsal riding started near zero, reached a plateau lasting from about the 15th to the 26th wk of life, and then gradually declined to zero. Dorsal riding did not replace ventral; rather, dorsal riding increased in frequency until it occurred about as often as ventral riding. Prolonged ventral riding by infants of the smaller of the two troops may have been due to spacing differences or to greater nervousness among members of the smaller troop. There were no significant differences in riding or walking associated with the time of day or the infant's sex. The rate of transition from riding to walking was greatest from about the fifth to the seventh months, which may be especially significant time in the early development of independence.     

Sparganosis in wild-caught baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis)

BACKGROUND: Sparganosis is the infection of a paratenic host with the plerocercoid metacestode of Spirometra spp. A 12-year-old captive, pregnant, wild-caught baboon from Tanzania had multiple subcutaneous nodules. METHODS: Examination of the biopsied nodules revealed the presence of viable metacestodes. The histological morphology of the metacestodes was consistent with the genus Spirometra and other pseudophyllidean cestodes. Since species of Spirometra produce growth hormones that are active in mammals, we measured fetal and placental growth and hormone levels. Blood samples were taken from the mother and the cesarean-derived fetus for hematological, biochemical, and hormonal analyses and to test for the presence of antispargana antibodies. RESULTS: Baboon placental weight and fetal hematological, biochemical, and morphometric parameters were within normal ranges. Antibody titers to spargana did not differ significantly between mother (1.08 OD(405)) and fetus (0.91 OD(405)). Baboon maternal insulin-like growth factor and growth hormone values were also within the normal range. Estradiol and progesterone analysis in four of these animals (antibody titers ranged from 0.71 to 1.7 OD(405)) showed no statistically significant difference with age- or phase-matched cycle parameters compared with antibody-negative females. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results that have been obtained, sparganosis did not appear to affect the endocrinological profile of pregnant and cycling female baboons.     

Palatal growth in baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis)

In this study the structure and development of the palate as observed in a cross-sectional collection of olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) skulls are described and analyzed using craniometric techniques. Considered are structural functional relationships among different parts of the palate, and between the palate and other parts of the craniofacial skeleton. Several inferences are drawn and speculated upon. These inferences are as follows: odontogenesis affects premaxillary growth the most during late fetal and early postnatal development; maxillary length is significantly affected by development and eruption of the maxillary dentition, whereas maxillary breadth is less affected by dental development. Growth of the palatine bones and nasopharyngeal airway is correlated with dentomasticatory changes; the developmental and functional significance of these correlations is unclear. Further inferences are that growth rates for each palatal component differ for each sex even though lengths of the components relative to total palatal dimensions show no sexual dimorphism. Also, it is determined that maxillary length remains constant, premaxillary length reduces and palatine length increases relative to total palatal length with growth.     

Pasteurella multocida infections in baboons (Papio cynocephalus)

The respiratory pathogenPasteurella multocida was isolated from infections of the laryngeal air sacs of two baboons and from abscesses in the neck or femoral area of two other baboons. The infections were associated with surgical procedures involving the cervical area, chronic catheterization, and chair restraint. The organism was also detected among the commensal pharyngeal flora in 2 of 15 clinically healthy, wildborn adult baboons. These findings suggest that the organism is harbored naturally in baboons and that exudative infections can occur secondary to specific procedures.     

Sun avoidance in the yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) of Ruaha National Park, Tanzania. Variations with season, behavior and weather

Do free-ranging baboons avoid traveling towards the sun? Sun avoidance, in addition to resource and predator locations, may influence troop movement and non-random use of the home range. This paper investigates how sun avoidance, as measured by facial exposure to sunlight, influences directional choices. It hypothesizes that baboons should avoid the sun in the hot, dry season and show indifference to it in the cool, lush season. This paper also hypothesizes that baboons employ sun-avoidance behaviors more while they forage or travel to resting sites than when they travel to foraging sites or engage in active social behaviors; lastly this paper hypothesizes that sun altitude, temperature, humidity, and cloud cover influence sun-avoidance behavior. Using focal-animal techniques on 21 males from free-ranging baboon troops, I collected locational data, accurate to within 1.6 m, over 15 months. I calculated the difference between baboon bearings and the sun’s azimuth in angular degrees. Both linear and circular statistics indicate that baboons put significantly (P<0.01) more than 90° between their bearing and the sun’s azimuth under certain conditions. Contrary to hypotheses based on the detrimental effects of insolation, baboons in the cool, lush season avoid the sun, while baboons in the hot, dry season do not. In the lush season, the extent to which baboons avoid the sun does not depend on their other behaviors. Dry-season baboons demonstrate stronger sun avoidance while resting than when engaged in other behaviors. Finally, in the dry season, temperature drives sun avoidance; humidity drives it in the lush season.     

Bipedal behavior of olive baboons (Papio anubis) and its relevance to an understanding of the evolution of human bipedalism

The bipedal behavior of a troop of olive baboons (Papio anubis) is described. Bipedalism is relatively rare but nevertheless occurs in a wide variety of situations, although bipedalism during feeding occurs much more frequently than in other situations. The incidence of bipedalism varies between different age-sex classes and between individuals within age-sex classes. This pattern of bipedalism occurred within an overall adaptive response, particularly in feeding behavior, which was similar to that of the gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada). The data on bipedalism is used together with an existing model of early hominid differentiation based on T. gelada to indicate the types of bipedal behavior which might have occurred in early hominid small object feeders and to suggest how a bipedal pattern of this type might have served as a basis for the action of selection for a more committedly bipedal pattern at later stages of hominid evolution.     

Information content of female copulation calls in yellow baboons.

In a wide variety of animal species, females produce vocalizations just before, during, or immediately after copulation. Observational and experimental evidence indicates that these copulation calls are sexually selected traits, functioning to promote competition between males for access to the calling female. In this paper, we present an acoustic analysis of variation in the form of copulation calls of female yellow baboons, Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus. In particular, we examine whether information about three factors-the calling female's reproductive state, the occurrence or absence of ejaculation, and the dominance rank of the mating male-is encoded in call structure and hence is potentially available to male receivers attending to the signal. Although several features of copulation calls were correlated with each of these factors, when all three were included in multiple regressions only reproductive state and rank of the mating male had independent effects on call form. These findings indicate that female copulation calls in this species signal information about the proximity to ovulation of the calling female and also the relative competitive strength of her mating partner.     

Correlates of agonistic and competitive interactions in pregnant baboons

Maternal condition during pregnancy is known to influence fetal viability. Recently, primatologists have suggested that certain characteristics of the fetus may influence maternal condition as well. For example, among captive pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) mothers of female infants may be at greater risk of injury during their pregnancies than mothers of male infants. Analysis of the rates of aggression, submission, competition, and wounding among free-ranging pregnant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) in Amboseli National Park generally fail to support these findings, but several other factors such as maternal dominance rank, environmental conditions during pregnancy, maternal parity, and fetal age correlate with aggression, submission, competition, and injuries sustained by pregnant female baboons.