Virus diseases of lupins

• I. INTRODUCTION
• II. APHID-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES

• (a) Potyvirus group

• (i) Bean yellow mosaic virus
• (ii) Clover yellow vein virus
• (iii) Bean common mosaic virus
• (iv) Peanut mottle virus
• (v) Bidens mottle virus

• (b) Cucumovirus group

• (i) Cucumber mosaic virus
• (ii) Peanut stunt virus

• (c) Alfalfa mosaic virus
• (d) Fabavirus group: broad bean wilt virus
• (e) Pea enation mosaic virus
• (f) Luteovirus group: soybean dwarf virus
• (g) Rhabdovirus group: lettuce necrotic yellows virus

• III. THRIPS-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES
• Tomato spotted wilt virus

• IV. NEMATODE-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES

• (a) Tobravirus group: pea early browning virus
• (b) Nepovirus group: tomato black ring virus

• V. VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES

• (a) Lupin leaf curl ‘virus’
• (b) ‘Lupin witches’ broom disease

• VI. CONTROL VII. CONCLUSIONS
• VII. CONCLUSIONS

     

Responses of dorsal tricorn-type sensilla on Ligia exotica

• 1.1. In order to investigate the function of the dorsal tricorn-type sensilla on Ligia exotica, the morphology and distribution of the setae and neural responses to certain stimulus modalities were studied.
• 2.2. These foraminate sensilla are found to occur over the body surface, except for several appendages and the ventral carapace (sternite); the dorsal carapace (tergite) is covered by only this type of sensilla.
• 3.3. The tricorn-type sensilla located on the dorsal carapace responded to mechanical, gustatory and olfactory stimulation.
• 4.4. The function of the tricorn-type sensilla on the dorsal carapace was discussed.

     

Influence of handling and/or anaesthesia on stress response in rainbow trout. Effects on liver primary metabolism

• 1.1. The overall effect of handling, anaesthesia and sham injection on some blood metabolites, liver glycogen and several key enzymes involved in liver carbohydrates and nitrogen metabolism was studied in rainbow trout. In addition, the possible role of anaesthesia (MS222) itself as a stress-inductor or suppressor was also studied.
• 2.2. Stress resulted in hyperglycaemia and initially in liver glycogen depletion, as well as increasing plasma amino acid levels.
• 3.3. Glycogen stores subsequently recovered while amino acid concentration fell.
• 4.4. These changes seemed to correlate with the increased activity of liver fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, alanine aminotransferase and glutamate dehydrogenase, thus supporting the hypothesis that gluconeogenic flux from amino acids increases in stressed trouts.
• 5.5. Anaesthesia, under the same experimental conditions, did not seem to mediate in stress production, but rather resulted in stress suppression.

     

Relative bioavailability and DNA adduct formation of benzo[a]pyrene and metabolites in the diet of the winter flounder

• 1.1. Radiolabeled metabolites of the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) were shown to be absorbed through the diet of the winter flounder, Pseudo pleuronectes americanus.
• 2.2. Oral bioavailability of a mixture of naturally produced metabolites was significantly less than that of the parent BaP.
• 3.3. Oral bioavailability of a pure metabolite, BaP-7,8-dihydrodiol (7,8-D) was found to be similar to that of BaP.
• 4.4. Both metabolites and BaP formed DNA adducts in liver.

     

On the role of dynamic atmosphere–vegetation interactions under increasing radiative forcing

• 1 A zero‐dimensional model of local atmosphere–vegetation interaction is presented. The model includes essentials of water related two‐way feedbacks, such as the influence of vegetation on evapotranspiration, and the impact of temperature and drought on biomass growth and mortality. The simple model serves as a framework for the preliminary investigation of vegetation related feedbacks under climate change scenarios.
  • 2 Model simulations for a mid‐latitude forest area for an increasing external forcing indicate a transient growth of biomass up to a critical forcing, where drought stress begins to dominate the response. Beyond, biomass decreases, reinforced by the reduced evapotranspiration of a diminished vegetation, leading to an additional temperature increase (biomass–evapotranspiration feedback).
    • 3 The implementation of an additional feedback loop based on the hypothesis that drought stress implies not only a reduction in above‐ground biomass, but also a net reduction in roots and therefore a reduction of the amount of water accessible to the plants for transpiration, leads to the occurrence of a second stable state in the atmosphere–vegetation system. In the bistable regime, a moderate perturbation can trigger an abrupt change of state.
      • 4 The present conceptual investigations underline the importance of a dynamic vegetation subsystem in transient climate change, and stress in particular the possible role of feedbacks related to root dynamics.

     

ILSI/HESI maternal toxicity workshop summary: maternal toxicity and its impact on study design and data interpretation

Workshops on maternal toxicity were held at the annual Society of Toxicology, Teratology Society, and European Teratology Society meetings in 2009. Speakers presented background information prior to a general discussion on this topic. The following recommendations/options are based on the outcome of the discussions at the workshops:

• 1. A comprehensive evaluation of all available data from general toxicity studies, range‐finding Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology (DART) studies, class effects, structure–activity relationships, exposure studies, etc. is essential for appropriate dose selection for definitive DART studies. The intent is to avoid marked maternal toxicity leading to mortality or decreased body weight gains of greater than 20% for prolonged periods.

• (a) Evaluate alternative endpoints for dose selection and data interpretation (e.g., target tissue effects and pharmacology) for biotherapeutics.
• (B) Evaluate additional maternal parameters based on effects and/or target organs observed in short‐term (e.g., 2‐ or 4‐week) general toxicity studies.

• 2. Evaluate all available data to determine a cause–effect relationship for developmental toxicity.

• (a) Conduct a pair‐feeding/pair‐watering study as a follow‐up.
• (b) Evaluate individual data demonstrating maternal toxicity in the mother with adverse embryo–fetal outcomes in the litter associated with the affected mother.
• (c) Conduct single‐dose studies at increasing doses as a complement to conventional embryo–fetal toxicity studies for certain classes of compounds that affect the hERG channel.

• 3. Support statements that embryo–fetal effects are caused by maternal toxicity and/or exaggerated pharmacology, especially for malformations.

• (a) Provide mechanistic or other supporting data.
• (b) Establish the relevance of the DART findings in animals for human exposures. Birth Defects Res (Part B) 92:36–51, 2010. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

     

TOXIC EFFECTS OF OXYGEN ON CEREBRAL METABOLISM

Abstract— The effect of 100% O₂ at one atmosphere on carbohydrate metabolism in cell-free homogenates of rat brain was studied under different experimental conditions. The principal findings were the following:

• 1 Compared to 10% O₂-90% N₂, oxygen at one atmosphere inhibited metabolism of α-oxoglutarate and depressed the net synthesis of ATP. With glucose as substrate, accumulation of ATP was also markedly inhibited but substrate utilization was only slightly affected.

• 2 Glycolysis in brain was relatively resistant to oxygen toxicity, except in the presence of added Cu²⁺.

• 3 With α-oxoglutarate as the substrate, inhibition of the formation of ATP occurred earlier than inhibition of substrate utilization, indicating the particular sensitivity of oxidative phosphorylation to inactivation by oxygen in vitro.

• 4 Cu²⁺ and Fe²⁺ accentuated oxygen toxicity but appeared to act by different mechanisms. Co²⁺ exerted a protective effect.

• 5 The sulphydryl compounds, dithiothreitol and reduced glutathione, strongly diminished the toxic effect of oxygen.

     

Neutrophil mediated myocardial injury

• 1.1. Activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) were shown to exacerbate ischemic myocardial injury and their activation is modulated by complement system, platelet activating factor, arachidonic acid metabolites, adenosine and nitric oxide.
• 2.2. Mechanisms of injurious PMN effect on ischemic myocardium are related to both mechanical and biochemical processes.
• 3.3. Activated PMN aggregate and adhere to endothelium that results in capillary plugging and subsequent impairment of coronary blood flow as well as participating in the development of endothelial cell edema.
• 4.4. PMN-related biochemical damage of ischemic myocardium is a result of the release of cytotoxic free oxygen radicals and proteolytic enzymes as well as vasoconstrictor leukotriene B4 and leukotoxin.

     

Interstitial cells of Cajal,macrophages and mast cells in the gut musculature: morphology,distribution, spatial and possible functional interactions

• ? Introduction
• ? Identification of the cells
  • ‐ ICC
  • ‐ Macrophages
    • ‐ Activation
    • ‐ Identification
  • ‐ Mast cells
    • ‐ Activation
    • ‐ Identification
• ? Cell distribution
  • ‐ ICC in rodent gastrointestinal tract
  • ‐ ICC in human gastrointestinal tract
  • ‐ Macrophages in rodent gastrointestinal tract
  • ‐ Macrophages in human gastrointestinal tract
  • ‐ Mast cells in rodent gastrointestinal tract
  • ‐ Mast cells in human gastrointestinal tract
• ? Inflammation
  • ‐ Models of inflammation
    • ‐ LPS administration
    • ‐ Surgical anastomosis
    • ‐ Ileal obstruction
    • ‐ Post‐operative ileus
    • ‐ Helminth infections
  • ‐ Inflammatory bowel disease
  • ‐ Achalasia
• ? Diabetes mellitus
  • ‐ NOD/LtJ mice
  • ‐ STZ‐DM rats
• ? Conclusions

Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are recognized as pacemaker cells for gastrointestinal movement and are suggested to be mediators of neuromuscular transmission. Intestinal motility disturbances are often associated with a reduced number of ICC and/or ultrastructural damage, sometimes associated with immune cells. Macrophages and mast cells in the intestinal muscularis externa of rodents can be found in close spatial contact with ICC. Macrophages are a constant and regularly distributed cell population in the serosa and at the level of Auerbach’s plexus (AP). In human colon, ICC are in close contact with macrophages at the level of AP, suggesting functional interaction. It has therefore been proposed that ICC and macrophages interact. Macrophages and mast cells are considered to play important roles in the innate immune defence by producing pro‐inflammatory mediators during classical activation, which may in itself result in damage to the tissue. They also take part in alternative activation which is associated with anti‐inflammatory mediators, tissue remodelling and homeostasis, cancer, helminth infections and immunophenotype switch. ICC become damaged under various circumstances – surgical resection, possibly post‐operative ileus in rodents – where innate activation takes place, and in helminth infections – where alternative activation takes place. During alternative activation the muscularis macrophage can switch phenotype resulting in up‐regulation of F4/80 and the mannose receptor. In more chronic conditions such as Crohn’s disease and achalasia, ICC and mast cells develop close spatial contacts and piecemeal degranulation is possibly triggered.     

Anaerobic metabolism in the lugworm Arenicola marina during low tide: The influence of developing reproductive cells

• 1.1. The extent of anaerobic energy production of Arenicola marina during low tide is dependent on the season and on the locality in the intertidal.
• 2.2. Anaerobic energy production was only found: (a) in animals from sediments, which fall dry for several hours; (b) in summer and autumn, but not in winter and spring.
• 3.3. A correlation between the extent of anaerobic energy production and the development of gametes was demonstrated.
• 4.4. The process of spawning represents a great stress to the animals. At this time the ability of Arenicola marina to survive anaerobic conditions was reduced drastically.

     

Changes in blood metabolite concentrations in response to repeated capture,anaesthesia and blood sampling in the golden perch,Macquaria ambigua

• 1.1. The major metabolic changes associated with repeated capture, aquarium transfer, anaesthesia and blood sampling were investigated in an Australian freshwater fish, the golden perch (Macquaria ambigua),
• 2.2. A compounded stress response was seen after repetition of the procedure, in which the plasma glucose rose within 3 hr and amino acid concentrations rose and the serum free fatty acids concentration fell after 24 hr.
• 3.3. Alanine was identified as an important circulating energy store in the stress response of golden perch.
• 4.4. No change was noted in the serum protein, plasma lactate or β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations, indicating that tissue damage and hypoxia were absent, and that degradation of free fatty acids did not produce metabolites excess to the requirements of gluconeogenesis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle.

     

Physiological costs of combating chemical toxicants: Ecological implications

• 1.1. Evidence is presented that combating the poisoning effects of toxic chemicals is metabotically costly.
• 2.2. This has implications for relating physiological stress responses observed at the level of individual organisms to population effects, and needs to be incorporated explicitly into models making this link.
• 3.3. The cost hypothesis also has implication for the evolution of stress resistance either as a fixed or facultative (inducible) response. Optimization models incorporating these ideas are reviewed and discussed.

     

Lectins and superantigens: Membrane interactions of these compounds with T lymphocytes affect immune responses

• 1.1. Lectins and superantigens belong to two different families of macromolecules which are able to interact with cells of the immune system.
• 2.2. The principal mechanisms by which they modulate immune responses are presented in this review.
• 3.3. Possible similarities shared by these proteins and their common mechanisms of action upon immunocytes will be presented along with a brief discussion regarding the role of these molecules in physiological immune responses and human diseases.

     

THE MAINTENANCE OF SPECIES-RICHNESS IN PLANT COMMUNITIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REGENERATION NICHE

• 1 According to ‘Gause's hypothesis’ a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities.
• 2 Most plant communities are longer-lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all-important to the argument presented.
• 3 Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species-richness:

• (a). differences in life-form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence-relationships,
• (b) differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression,
• (c) fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species,
• (d) the ability of certain species-pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition,
• (e) the production of substances more toxic to the producer-species than to the other species,
• (f) differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore-sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and
• (g) differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven-age structure of many populations.

• 4 The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species-rich communities known.
• 5 In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance.
• 6 The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2.
• 7 The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components:

• (a) the habitat niche,
• (b) the life-form niche,
• (c) the phenological niche, and
• (d) the regeneration niche.

• 8 A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche.
• 9 All stages in the regeneration-cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages:

• (a) Production of viable seed (including the sub-stages of flowering, pollination and seed-set),
• (b) dispersal, in space and time,
• (c) germination,
• (d) establishment, and
• (e) further development of the immature plant.

• 10 In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes:

• (a) the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species-richness in plant communities,
• (b) the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread,
• (c) the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation,
• (d) the co-incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and
• (e) the importance of regeneration-studies for conservation.

     

Stimulatory effect of amp on the copper ion dependent oxidation of adrenaline to adrenochrome

• 1.1. AMP markedly activated copper ion dependent oxidation of adrenaline to adrenochrome. It is proposed that a Cu(II)-AMP chelate forms a reactive complex with adrenaline.
• 2.2. AMP did not affect copper stimulated oxidation of noradrenaline, dopamine and l-dopa.

     

Stress-induced heat-shock protein synthesis in peripheral leukocytes of turkeys,Meleagris gallopavo

• 1.1. Thermal stress, in vitro and in vivo, induced the synthesis of heat-shock proteins, HSP90, HSP70, and HSP23 in turkey leukocytes.
• 2.2. HSP induction was both temperature- and time-dependent.
• 3.3. Salinity-specific stress proteins were expressed with elevated osmolality in culture medium.

     

Extrapolation through hierarchical levels

• 1.1. Translating results from low hierarchical levels to higher orders meets with difficulties with respect to temporal, spatial and organizational scales.
• 2.2. Translating stress effects through hierarchical levels has not yet been possible, thus hampering ecological risk assessment.
• 3.3. Three approaches to link the various levels are described; the energetics, the endpoint and the minimal structure approach.
• 4.4. A concept to integrate these approaches to enable extrapolation of stress effects across hierarchical levels is described.

     

Modulation of smooth muscle activity by excitatory and inhibitory nerves in the guinea-pig stomach

• 1.1. In smooth muscle of the guinea-pig stomach, intramural nerve stimulation evoked cholinergic excitatory junction potential in the fundus and non-adrenergic non-cholinergic inhibitory junction potential in the antrum, yet cholinergic contractions in both regions.
• 2.2. This dissociation between electrical and mechanical responses was mainly due to different sensitivity of the membrane for depolarization to acetylcholine.

     

Mammalian tyrosinase—The critical regulatory control point in melanocyte pigmentation

• 1.1. Tyrosinase is a copper-containing enzyme responsible for the production of melanin pigment throughout the phylogenetic spectrum.
• 2.2. In mammals, tyrosinase is glycosylated enzyme found specifically in melanocytes—cells functional in the production and secretion of pigment granules.
• 3.3. Although many factors determine the type, quantity and quality of the melanin produced, tyrosinase activity is the critical factor that ultimately regulates melanogenesis.