Adiponectin inhibits osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption via APPL1-mediated suppression of Akt1

Adiponectin is an adipokine playing an important role in regulating energy homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. However, the effect of adiponectin on bone metabolism shows contradictory results according to different research studies. In this study femurs were isolated from genetically double-labeled mBSP9.0Luc/β-ACT-EGFP transgenic mice and were transplanted into adiponectin knock-out mice or wild type mice to investigate the effect of temporary exposure to adiponectin deficiency on bone growth and metabolism. We found that the growth of bone explants in adiponectin knock-out mice was significantly retarded. Histological analysis, microcomputed tomography analysis, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining revealed reduced trabecular bone volume, decreased cortical bone, and increased osteoclast number in bone explants in adiponectin knock-out mice. We then found that adiponectin inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis from RAW264.7 cells and down-regulates RANKL-enhanced expressions of osteoclastogenic regulators including NFAT2, TRAF6, cathepsin K, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase. Adiponectin also increases osteoclast apoptosis and decreases survival/proliferation of osteoclast precursor cells. Using siRNA specifically targeting APPL1, the first identified adaptor protein of adiponectin signaling, we found that the inhibitory effect of adiponectin on osteoclasts was induced by APPL1-mediated down-regulation of Akt1 activity. In addition, overexpression of Akt1 successfully reversed adiponectin-induced inhibition in RANKL-stimulated osteoclast differentiation. In conclusion, adiponectin is important in maintaining the balance of energy metabolism, inflammatory responses, and bone formation.     

Hematopoietic cytoplasmic adaptor protein Hem1 promotes osteoclast fusion and bone resorption in mice

Hem1 (hematopoietic protein 1), a hematopoietic cell–specific member of the Hem family of cytoplasmic adaptor proteins, is essential for lymphopoiesis and innate immunity as well as for the transition of hematopoiesis from the fetal liver to the bone marrow. However, the role of Hem1 in bone cell differentiation and bone remodeling is unknown. Here, we show that deletion of Hem1 resulted in a markedly increase in bone mass because of defective bone resorption in mice of both sexes. Hem1-deficient osteoclast progenitors were able to differentiate into osteoclasts, but the osteoclasts exhibited impaired osteoclast fusion and decreased bone-resorption activity, potentially because of decreased mitogen-activated protein kinase and tyrosine kinase c-Abl activity. Transplantation of bone marrow hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells from wildtype into Hem1 knockout mice increased bone resorption and normalized bone mass. These findings indicate that Hem1 plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of normal bone mass.     

老年男性血清脂联素与骨密度的关系

目的：研究老年男性血清脂联素与骨密度和骨转化指标之间的关系。方法：对165例男性老年患者采用双能量X线吸收测量仪测定骨密度、肌肉及脂肪量,同时测定患者血清脂联素、骨碱性磷酸酶、甲状旁腺素、25羟维生素D和I型胶原β羧基端肽水平。结果：165例年龄超过58岁男性患者（平均年龄69.4±6.4岁,体重指数24.9±3.1 kg/m2）,脂联素与股骨颈骨密度相关系数为-0.31（P〈0.05）、与全髋骨密度相关系数为-0.23（P〈0.05）,年龄、BMI和脂肪量校正后,脂联素仅与股骨颈骨密度有显著相关（r=-0.25,P〈0.05）;脂联素与骨碱性磷酸酶正相关（r=0.28,P〈0.01）,混杂因素校正后,相关仍具有显著性（r=0.19,P〈0.05）;脂联素与I型胶原β羧基端肽呈正相关（r=0.15,P〈0.05）。结论：老年男性血清脂联素与股骨颈骨密度和骨ALP密切相关。     

Resorption of vital or devitalized bone by isolated osteoclasts in vitro

Summary The maintainance of resorptive capability towards vital or devitalized bone in osteoclasts isolated from the medullary bone of laying hens and cultured for five days in vitro has been investigated morphologically with the aid of light and transmission electron microscopy. Devitalized bone particles ranging in size from 50 to 100 m, added to cultures of osteoclasts, were rapidly surrounded by the osteoclasts which, in transmission electron microscopy, showed ruffled borders and clear zones at the surfaces of contact with bone — features typical of resorptive activity. Alternatively osteoclasts were added onto the endosteal surfaces of vital or devitalized diaphyses of quail femurs after removal of the endosteal and periosteal cell layers. The results indicated that, when the vital or devitalized bone surfaces were devoid of cells, the osteoclasts adhered and resorbed bone (as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy). When vital bone of quail was cultured for 24 h before the addition of osteoclasts a new cell layer was formed; it enveloped all bone surfaces and precluded the access of osteoclasts to bone. The role of these lining cells, ultrastructurally indistinguishable from resting osteoblasts, is discussed.     

Increased bone mass in mice after single injection of anti-receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand-neutralizing antibody: evidence for bone anabolic effect of parathyroid hormone in mice with few osteoclasts

Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) is a pivotal osteoclast differentiation factor. To investigate the effect of RANKL inhibition in normal mice, we prepared an anti-mouse RANKL-neutralizing monoclonal antibody (Mab, clone OYC1) and established a new mouse model with high bone mass induced by administration of OYC1. A single subcutaneous injection of 5 mg/kg OYC1 in normal mice significantly augmented the bone mineral density in the distal femoral metaphysis from day 2 to day 28. The OYC1 treatment markedly reduced the serum level of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-5b (TRAP-5b, a marker for osteoclasts) on day 1, and this level was undetectable from day 3 to day 28. The serum level of alkaline phosphatase (a marker for osteoblasts) declined significantly following the reduction of TRAP-5b. Histological analysis revealed few osteoclasts in femurs of the treated mice on day 4, and both osteoclasts and osteoblasts were markedly diminished on day 14. Daily injection of parathyroid hormone for 2 weeks increased the bone mineral density in trabecular and cortical bone by stimulating bone formation in the OYC1-treated mice. These results suggest that parathyroid hormone exerted its bone anabolic activity in mice with few osteoclasts. The mouse anti-RANKL neutralizing antibody OYC1 may be a useful tool to investigate unknown functions of RANKL in vivo.     

Pulsed electromagnetic fields regulate osteocyte apoptosis,RANKL/OPG expression,and its control of osteoclastogenesis depending on the presence of primary cilia

Growing evidence has shown that pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) can modulate bone metabolism in vivo and regulate the activities of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in vitro. Osteocytes, accounting for 95% of bone cells, act as the major mechanosensors in bone for transducing external mechanical signals and producing cytokines to regulate osteoblastic and osteoclastic activities. Targeting osteocytic signaling pathways is becoming an emerging therapeutic strategy for bone diseases. We herein systematically investigated the changes of osteocyte behaviors, functions, and its regulation on osteoclastogenesis in response to PEMF. The osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 cells were exposed to 15 Hz PEMF stimulation with different intensities (0, 5, and 30 Gauss [G]) for 2 hr. We found that the cell apoptosis and cytoskeleton organization of osteocytes were regulated by PEMF with an intensity-dependent manner. Moreover, PEMF exposure with 5 G significantly inhibited apoptosis-related gene expression and also suppressed the gene and protein expression of the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand/osteoprotegerin (RANKL/OPG) ratio in MLO-Y4 cells. The formation, maturation, and osteoclastic bone-resorption capability of in vitro osteoclasts were significantly suppressed after treated with the conditioned medium from PEMF-exposed (5 G) osteocytes. Our results also revealed that the inhibition of osteoclastic formation, maturation, and bone-resorption capability induced by the conditioned medium from 5 G PEMF-exposed osteocytes was significantly attenuated after abrogating primary cilia in osteocytes using the polaris siRNA transfection. Together, our findings highlight that PEMF with 5 G can inhibit cellular apoptosis, modulate cytoskeletal distribution, and decrease RANKL/OPG expression in osteocytes, and also inhibit osteocyte-mediated osteoclastogenesis, which requires the existence of primary cilia in osteocytes. This study enriches our basic knowledge for further understanding the biological behaviors of osteocytes and is also helpful for providing a more comprehensive mechanistic understanding of the effect of electromagnetic stimulation on bone and relevant skeletal diseases (e.g., bone fracture and osteoporosis).     

Hedgehog signaling induced by breast cancer cells promotes osteoclastogenesis and osteolysis

Bone integrity is maintained by a dynamic equilibrium between the activities of bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Osteolytic lesions are a painful consequence of metastasis of breast cancer cells to bone in an overwhelming majority of breast cancer patients. Factors secreted by breast cancer cells propel a cascade of events that trigger osteoclastogenesis and elevated bone resorption. In the present study, we show that the Hedgehog (Hh) ligands secreted by breast cancer cells promote osteoclast differentiation and potentiate the activity of mature osteoclasts. Paracrine Hh signaling induced by breast cancer cells mediates a detrimental chain of events by the up-regulation of osteopontin (OPN), which in turn enhances osteoclastic activity by up-regulating cathepsin K and MMP9. Hh signaling is essential for osteoclasts because blocking the Hh pathway using the pharmacological Hh inhibitor, cyclopamine, results in an overall decrease in osteoclastogenesis and resorptive activity. Our studies suggest that inhibiting Hh signaling interferes with the ability of pre-osteoclasts to respond to the stimulatory effects of the breast cancer cells, indicating that Hh signaling is vital to osteoclast activity.     

Are Osteoclasts Needed for the Bone Anabolic Response to Parathyroid Hormone?: A STUDY OF INTERMITTENT PARATHYROID HORMONE WITH DENOSUMAB OR ALENDRONATE IN KNOCK-IN MICE EXPRESSING HUMANIZED RANKL*

PTH stimulates osteoblastic cells to form new bone and to produce osteoblast-osteoclast coupling factors such as RANKL. Whether osteoclasts or their activity are needed for PTH anabolism remains uncertain. We treated ovariectomized huRANKL knock-in mice with a human RANKL inhibitor denosumab (DMAb), alendronate (Aln), or vehicle for 4 weeks, followed by co-treatment with intermittent PTH for 4 weeks. Loss of bone mass and microarchitecture was prevented by Aln and further significantly improved by DMAb. PTH improved bone mass, microstructure, and strength, and was additive to Aln but not to DMAb. Aln inhibited biochemical and histomorphometrical indices of bone turnover, -i.e. osteocalcin and bone formation rate (BFR) on cancellous bone surfaces-, and Dmab inhibited them further. However Aln increased whereas Dmab suppressed osteoclast number and surfaces. PTH significantly increased osteocalcin and bone formation indices, in the absence or presence of either antiresorptive, although BFR remained lower in presence of Dmab. To further evaluate PTH effects in the complete absence of osteoclasts, high dose PTH was administered to RANK^−/− mice. PTH increased osteocalcin similarly in RANK^−/− and WT mice. It also increased BMD in RANK^−/− mice, although less than in WT. These results further indicate that osteoclasts are not strictly required for PTH anabolism, which presumably still occurs via stimulation of modeling-based bone formation. However the magnitude of PTH anabolic effects on the skeleton, in particular its additive effects with antiresorptives, depends on the extent of the remodeling space, as determined by the number and activity of osteoclasts on bone surfaces.     

Osteoclast‐specific Dicer gene deficiency suppresses osteoclastic bone resorption

Osteoclasts are unique cells that resorb bone, and are involved in not only bone remodeling but also pathological bone loss such as osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis. The regulation of osteoclasts is based on a number of molecules but full details of these molecules have not yet been understood. MicroRNAs are produced by Dicer cleavage an emerging regulatory system for cell and tissue function. Here, we examine the effects of Dicer deficiency in osteoclasts on osteoclastic activity and bone mass in vivo. We specifically knocked out Dicer in osteoclasts by crossing Dicer flox mice with cathepsin K‐Cre knock‐in mice. Dicer deficiency in osteoclasts decreased the number of osteoclasts (N.Oc/BS) and osteoclast surface (Oc.S/BS) in vivo. Intrinsically, Dicer deficiency in osteoclasts suppressed the levels of TRAP positive multinucleated cell development in culture and also reduced NFATc1 and TRAP gene expression. MicroRNA analysis indicated that expression of miR‐155 was suppressed by RANKL treatment in Dicer deficient cells. Dicer deficiency in osteoclasts suppressed osteoblastic activity in vivo including mineral apposition rate (MAR) and bone formation rate (BFR) and also suppressed expression of genes encoding type I collagen, osteocalcin, Runx2, and Efnb2 in vivo. Dicer deficiency in osteoclasts increased the levels of bone mass indicating that the Dicer deficiency‐induced osteoclastic suppression was dominant over Dicer deficiency‐induced osteoblastic suppression. On the other hand, conditional Dicer deletion in osteoblasts by using 2.3 kb type I collagen‐Cre did not affect bone mass. These results indicate that Dicer in osteoclasts controls activity of bone resorption in vivo. J. Cell. Biochem. 109: 866–875, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Protein Kinase D Promotes in Vitro Osteoclast Differentiation and Fusion

Although PKD is broadly expressed and involved in numerous cellular processes, its function in osteoclasts has not been previously reported. In this study, we found that PKD2 is the main PKD isoform expressed in osteoclastic cells. PKD phosphorylation, indicative of the activated state, increased after 2–3 days of treatment of bone marrow macrophages with M-CSF and RANKL, corresponding to the onset of preosteoclast fusion. RNAi against PKD2 and treatment with the PKD inhibitor CID755673 showed that PKD activity is dispensable for induction of bone marrow macrophages into tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive preosteoclasts in culture but is required for the transition from mononucleated preosteoclasts to multinucleated osteoclasts. Loss of PKD activity reduced expression of DC-STAMP in RANKL-stimulated cultures. Overexpression of DC-STAMP was sufficient to rescue treatment with CID755673 and restore fusion into multinucleated osteoclasts. From these data, we conclude that PKD activity promotes differentiation of osteoclast progenitors through increased expression of DC-STAMP.     

Adiponectin inhibits induction of TNF-alpha/RANKL-stimulated NFATc1 via the AMPK signaling

We investigated here whether adiponectin can exhibit an inhibitory effect on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)- and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis by using RAW264 cell D clone with a high efficiency to form osteoclasts. Globular adiponectin (gAd) strongly inhibited TNF-alpha/RANKL-induced differentiation of osteoclasts by interfering with TNF receptor-associated factor 6 production and calcium signaling; consequently, the induction of nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1) was strongly inhibited. Moreover, we observed that inhibition of AMP-activated protein kinase abrogated gAd inhibition for TNF-alpha/RANKL-induced NFATc1 expression. Our data suggest that adiponectin acts as a potent regulator of bone resorption observed in diseases associated with cytokine activation.     

脂联素在早产儿血清中的表达及其与体格指标、载脂蛋白和骨密度的关系

目的:探讨脂联素在早产儿血清中的表达水平及其与体格指标、载脂蛋白和骨密度的相关性。方法:选择2017年1月至2018年5月期间我院新生儿科住院的早产儿72例作为研究组,另外选择同期我院出生的足月新生儿58例作为对照组。对比两组新生儿的一般资料、脂联素、载脂蛋白和骨密度水平,分析早产儿血清脂联素水平与体格指标、载脂蛋白和骨密度的相关性,同时分析影响血清脂联素水平的危险因素。结果:两组受试新生儿的性别、胸围、低密度脂蛋白(LDL-C)及高密度脂蛋白(HDL-C)之间的差异无统计学意义(P0.05);研究组新生儿的胎龄、体质量指数(BMⅠ)、身长、头围、总胆固醇(TC)及三酰甘油(TG)明显低于对照组(P0.05);与对照组相比,研究组新生儿血清脂联素、载脂蛋白A-Ⅰ(Apo A-Ⅰ)及左胫骨中段超声波在骨骼中的传播速度(SOS)水平明显下降,而载脂蛋白B(Apo B)和Apo B/Apo A-Ⅰ水平均显著升高,且差异均具有统计学意义(P0.05);早产儿血清脂联素水平与胎龄、BMⅠ、头围、TC、TG、Apo A-Ⅰ及SOS呈正相关(P0.05),与Apo B和Apo B/Apo A-Ⅰ水平呈负相关(P0.05);Logistic回归结果显示,胎龄、BMⅠ、Apo B/Apo A-Ⅰ及SOS是早产儿血清脂联素水平的影响因素(P0.05)。结论:早产儿血清脂联素水平低于足月儿,血清脂联素水平与体格指标、载脂蛋白及骨密度密切相关,可能对新生儿的生长发育具有重要的调节作用。     

Licochalcone A inhibits the formation and bone resorptive activity of osteoclasts

Licochalcone A on the formation and bone resorptive activity of osteoclasts up to 5muM significantly inhibited the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) ligand (RANKL)-induced activity of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity and formation of osteoclasts without any effect on cell viability. Interestingly, licochalcone A was shown to inhibit the RANKL-induced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, translocation of NF-kappaB into nucleus and mRNA expression of Fra-2. Licochalcone A also inhibited the bone resorptive activity of mature osteoclasts and the expression of bone resorption-related genes. Inhibitory effects of licochalcone A on the formation and bone resorptive activity of mouse bone marrow macrophage-derived osteoclasts were also observed. In conclusion, licochalcone A has the potential to inhibit the formation of osteoclasts as well as the bone resorptive activity of mature osteoclasts.     

Osteoclast size heterogeneity in rat long bones is associated with differences in adhesive ligand specificity

Prothrombin (PT) is an RGD-containing bone-residing precursor to the serine protease thrombin (TH), which acts as an agonist for a variety of cellular responses in osteoblasts and osteoclasts. We show here that PT, TH, osteopontin (OPN) and fibronectin (FN) promoted adhesion of isolated neonatal rat long bone osteoclasts. However, the cells that adhered to PT and TH were smaller in size, rounded and contained 3-4 nuclei, in comparison to the cells adhering to OPN and FN, which were larger with extended cytoplasmic processes and 6-7 nuclei. Attachment of the larger osteoclasts to OPN and FN was inhibited by antibodies towards beta 3 and beta 1 integrin subunits, respectively. Whereas an RGD-containing peptide inhibited adhesion of the smaller osteoclasts to PT and TH, this was not seen with the beta 3 or beta 1 antibodies. In contrast, the beta 1 antibody augmented osteoclast adhesion to PT and TH in an RGD-dependent manner. Small osteoclasts were less efficient in resorbing mineralized bovine bone slices, as well as expressed lower mRNA levels of MMP-9 and the cathepsins K and L compared to large osteoclasts. The small osteoclast adhering to PT and TH may represent either an immature, less functional precursor to the large osteoclast or alternatively constitute a distinct osteoclast population with a specific role in bone.     

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 regulates the differentiation and activation of osteoclasts through Erk1/2 pathway

To elucidate the direct role and mechanism of FGFR1 signaling in the differentiation and activation of osteoclasts, we conditionally inactivated FGFR1 in bone marrow monocytes and mature osteoclasts of mice. Mice deficient in FGFR1 (Fgfr1^−/−) exhibited misregulated bone remodeling with reduced osteoclast number and impaired osteoclast function. In vitro assay demonstrated that the number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) positive osteoclasts derived from bone marrow monocytes of Fgfr1^−/− mice was significantly diminished. The bone resorption activity of mature osteoclasts derived from Fgfr1^−/− mice was also suppressed. Further analysis showed that the osteoclasts with FGFR1 deficiency exhibited downregulated expression of genes related to osteoclastic activity including TRAP and MMP-9. The phosphorylation of Erk1/2 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase was also decreased. Our results suggest that FGFR1 is indispensable for complete differentiation and activation of osteoclasts in mice.     

Bone resorptive activity of osteoclast-like cells generated in vitro by PEG-induced macrophage fusion

Normal bone remodeling is maintained by a balance between osteoclast and osteoblast activity, whereas defects in osteoclast activity affecting such balance result in metabolic bone disease. Macrophage-macrophage fusion leading to multinucleated osteoclasts being formed is still not well understood. Here we present PEG-induced fusion of macrophages from both U937/A and J774 cell lines and the induced differentiation and activation of osteoclast-like cells according to the expression of osteoclast markers such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) and bone resorptive activity. PEG-induced macrophage fusion, during the non-confluent stage, significantly increased the osteoclastogenic activity of macrophages from cell lines compared to that of spontaneous cell fusion in the absence of PEG (polyethylene glycol). The results shown in this work provide evidence that cell fusion per se induces osteoclast-like activity. PEG-fused macrophage differential response to pretreatment with osteoclastogenic factors was also examined in terms of its ability to form TRAP positive multinucleated cells (TPMNC) and its resorptive activity on bovine cortical bone slices. Our work has also led to a relatively simple method regarding those previously reported involving cell co-cultures. Multinucleated osteoclast-like cells obtained by PEG-induced fusion of macrophages from cell lines could represent a suitable system for conducting biochemical studies related to basic macrophage fusion mechanisms, bone-resorption activity and the experimental search for bone disease therapeutic alternatives.     

Extracellular matrix networks in bone remodeling

Bones are constantly remodeled throughout life to maintain robust structure and function. Dysfunctional remodeling can result in pathological conditions such as osteoporosis (bone loss) or osteosclerosis (bone gain). Bone contains 100s of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and the ECM of the various bone tissue compartments plays essential roles directing the remodeling of bone through the coupled activity of osteoclasts (which resorb bone) and osteoblasts (which produce new bone). One important role for the ECM is to serve as a scaffold upon which mineral is deposited. This scaffold is primarily type I collagen, but other ECM components are involved in binding of mineral components. In addition to providing a mineral scaffolding role, the ECM components provide structural flexibility for a tissue that would otherwise be overly rigid. Although primarily secreted by osteoblast-lineage cells, the ECM regulates cells of both the osteoblast-lineage (such as progenitors, mature osteoblasts, and osteocytes) and osteoclast-lineage (including precursors and mature osteoclasts), and it also influences the cross-talk that occurs between these two oppositional cells. ECM influences the differentiation process of mesenchymal stem cells to become osteoblasts by both direct cell-ECM interactions as well as by modulating growth factor activity. Similarly, the ECM can influence the development of osteoclasts from undifferentiated macrophage precursor cells, and influence osteoclast function through direct osteoclast cell binding to matrix components. This comprehensive review will focus on how networks of ECM proteins function to regulate osteoclast- and osteoblast-mediated bone remodeling. The clinical significance of these networks on normal bone and as they relate to pathologies of bone mass and geometry will be considered. A better understanding of the dynamic role of ECM networks in regulating tissue function and cell behavior is essential for the development of new treatment approaches for bone loss.     

The effects of luteolin on osteoclast differentiation, function in vitro and ovariectomy-induced bone loss

Flavonoids, a group of polyphenolic compounds abundant in plants, are known to prevent bone loss in ovariectomized (OVX) animal models. Inhibition of osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption is considered as an effective therapeutic approach in the treatment of postmenopausal bone loss. Luteolin, a plant flavonoid, has potent anti-inflammatory properties both in vivo and vitro. In this study, we found that luteolin markedly decreased the differentiation of both bone marrow mononuclear cells and Raw264.7 cells into osteoclasts. Luteolin also inhibited the bone resorptive activity of differentiated osteoclasts. We further investigated the effects of luteolin on ovariectomy-induced bone loss using micro-computed tomography, biomechanical tests and serum markers assay for bone remodeling. Oral administration of luteolin (5 and 20 mg/kg per day) to OVX mice caused significant increase in bone mineral density and bone mineral content of trabecular and cortical bones in the femur as compared to those of OVX controls, and prevented decreases of bone strength indexes induced by OVX surgery. Serum biochemical markers assays revealed that luteolin prevents OVX-induced increases in bone turnover. These data strongly suggest that luteolin has the potential for prevention of bone loss in postmenopausal osteoporosis by reducing both osteoclast differentiation and function.     

The reaction of osteoclasts when releasing osteocytes from osteocytic lacunae in the bone during bone modeling

Osteocytes are released from the osteocytic lacunae when osteoclasts resorb the bone matrix during bone modeling and remodeling. It remains unknown how osteoclasts react when releasing osteocytes during bone modeling, and the fate of these released osteocytes is also unclear. Femoral mid-shafts of 2-day-old kittens were sectioned into serial 0.5 microm-thick semithin or 0.1 microm-thick ultrathin sections, and examined by light microscopy (LM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The sections showed many osteoclasts at the endosteum but there were no osteoblasts. There were many half-released, fully released, half-exposed, and fully exposed osteocytes on the bone surfaces. Many cell-like structures were seen in the cell bodies of osteoclasts by LM, and some semithin sections were re-sectioned into ultrathin sections for re-observation by TEM. By TEM, these were determinated to be mononuclear cells. The serial ultrathin sections showed that the mononuclear cells appeared to be engulfed in osteoclasts on one section but that the cell was connected with the bone surface of the osteocytic lacuna on another section. These results show that the mononuclear cells in the osteoclasts were osteocytes. The present study suggests that osteoclasts engulf some osteocytes but do not engulf others when releasing osteocytes during bone modeling.