The significance of Her2 on androgen receptor protein stability in the transition of androgen requirement in prostate cancer cells

Androgen ablation therapy is the most common strategy for suppressing prostate cancer progression; however, tumor cells eventually escape androgen dependence and progress to an androgen-independent phase. The androgen receptor (AR) plays a pivotal role in this transition. To address this transition mystery in prostate cancer, we established an androgen-independent prostate cancer cell line (LNCaPdcc), by long-term screening of LNCaP cells in androgen-deprived conditions, to investigate changes of molecular mechanisms before and after androgen withdrawal. We found that LNCaPdcc cells displayed a neuroendocrine morphology, less aggressive growth, and lower expression levels of cell cycle-related factors, although the cell cycle distribution was similar to parental LNCaP cells. Notably, higher protein expression of AR, phospho-Ser(81)-AR, and PSA in LNCaPdcc cells were observed. The nuclear distribution and protein stability of AR increased in LNCaPdcc cells. In addition, cell proliferation results exhibited the biphasic nature of the androgen (R1881) effect in two cell lines. On the other hand, LNCaPdcc cells expressed higher levels of Her2, phospho-Tyr(1221/1222)-Her2, ErbB3, and ErbB4 proteins than parental LNCaP cells. These two cell lines exhibited distinct responses to Her2 activation (by heregulin treatment) on Her2 phosphorylation and Her2 inhibition (by AG825 or Herceptin treatments) on proliferation. In addition, the Her2 inhibitor more effectively caused AR degradation and diminished AR Ser(81) phosphorylation in LNCaPdcc cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Her2 plays an important role in the support of AR protein stability in the transition of androgen requirement in prostate cancer cells. We hope these findings will provide novel insight into the treatment of hormone-refractory prostate cancer.     

Mitotic UV Irradiation Induces a DNA Replication-Licensing Defect that Potentiates G1 Arrest Response

Cdt1 begins to accumulate in M phase and has a key role in establishing replication licensing at the end of mitosis or in early G1 phase. Treatments that damage the DNA of cells, such as UV irradiation, induce Cdt1 degradation through PCNA-dependent CRL4-Cdt2 ubiquitin ligase. How Cdt1 degradation is linked to cell cycle progression, however, remains unclear. In G1 phase, when licensing is established, UV irradiation leads to Cdt1 degradation, but has little effect on the licensing state. In M phase, however, UV irradiation does not induce Cdt1 degradation. When mitotic UV-irradiated cells were released into G1 phase, Cdt1 was degraded before licensing was established. Thus, these cells exhibited both defective licensing and G1 cell cycle arrest. The frequency of G1 arrest increased in cells expressing extra copies of Cdt2, and thus in cells in which Cdt1 degradation was enhanced, whereas the frequency of G1 arrest was reduced in cell expressing an extra copy of Cdt1. The G1 arrest response of cells irradiated in mitosis was important for cell survival by preventing the induction of apoptosis. Based on these observations, we propose that mammalian cells have a DNA replication-licensing checkpoint response to DNA damage induced during mitosis.     

嵌合分子（DHT-PROTAC）在前列腺癌研究中的进展

前列腺癌多发于老年男性,已成为老年男性常见肿瘤之一。内分泌治疗目前是晚期前列腺癌主要治疗方法,但仍避免不了前列腺癌最终进展成激素非依赖性前列腺癌,导致内分泌治疗的失败。当前,对前列腺癌细胞株的AR表达的研究,主要集中在DNA水平及mRNA水平,而对AR蛋白翻译后调控的研究较少。近些年来,嵌合分子（DHT-PROTAC）是基于蛋白水平．调控AR蛋白的表达,成为研究前列腺癌转归新的热点。DHT-PROTAC是一种新型人工合成的异型双功能小分子;这种小分子是DHT与泛素连接酶E3识别基团的嵌合体,它不仅能与AR结合,而且能在结合后,诱导AR的泛素化,从而通过泛素一蛋白酶途径降解AR;本文介绍了嵌合分子的作用原理,回顾了近些年前列腺癌的治疗进展,分析了嵌合分子将来在前列腺癌治疗中的应用前景。     

嵌合分子(DHT-PROTAC)在前列腺癌研究中的进展

前列腺癌多发于老年男性,已成为老年男性常见肿瘤之一。内分泌治疗目前是晚期前列腺癌主要治疗方法,但仍避免不了前列腺癌最终进展成激素非依赖性前列腺癌,导致内分泌治疗的失败。当前,对前列腺癌细胞株的AR表达的研究,主要集中在DNA水平及mRNA水平,而对AR蛋白翻译后调控的研究较少。近些年来,嵌合分子(DHT-PROTAC)是基于蛋白水平,调控AR蛋白的表达,成为研究前列腺癌转归新的热点。DHT-PROTAC是一种新型人工合成的异型双功能小分子;这种小分子是DHT与泛素连接酶E3识别基团的嵌合体,它不仅能与AR结合,而且能在结合后,诱导AR的泛素化,从而通过泛素-蛋白酶途径降解AR;本文介绍了嵌合分子的作用原理,回顾了近些年前列腺癌的治疗进展,分析了嵌合分子将来在前列腺癌治疗中的应用前景。     

Replitase: complete machinery for DNA synthesis

Replication of nuclear DNA in eukaryotes presents a tremendous challenge, not only due to the size and complexity of the genome, but also because of the time constraint imposed by a limited duration of S phase during which the entire genome has to be duplicated accurately and only once per cell division cycle. A challenge of this magnitude can only be met by the close coupling of DNA precursor synthesis to replication. Prokaryotic systems provide evidence for multienzyme and multiprotein complexes involved in DNA precursor synthesis and DNA replication. In addition, fractionation of nuclear proteins from proliferating mammalian cells shows co-sedimentation of enzymes involved in DNA replication with those required for synthesis of deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs). Such complexes can be isolated only from cells that are in S phase, but not from cells in G(0)/G(1) phases of cell cycle. The kinetics of deoxynucleotide metabolism supporting DNA replication in intact and permeabilized cells reveals close coupling and allosteric interaction between the enzymes of dNTP synthesis and DNA replication. These interactions contribute to channeling and compartmentation of deoxynucleotides in the microvicinity of DNA replication. A multienzyme and multiprotein megacomplex with these unique properties is called "replitase." In this article, we summarize some of the relevant evidence to date that supports the concept of replitase in mammalian cells, which originated from the observations in Dr. Pardee's laboratory. In addition, we show that androgen receptor (AR), which plays a critical role in proliferation and viability of prostate cancer cells, is associated with replitase, and that identification of constituents of replitase in androgen-dependent versus androgen-independent prostate cancer cells may provide insights into androgen-regulated events that control proliferation of prostate cancer cells and potentially offer an effective strategy for the treatment of prostate cancer.     

Human geminin promotes pre-RC formation and DNA replication by stabilizing CDT1 in mitosis

Geminin is an unstable inhibitor of DNA replication that negatively regulates the licensing factor CDT1 and inhibits pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) formation in Xenopus egg extracts. Here we describe a novel function of Geminin. We demonstrate that human Geminin protects CDT1 from proteasome-mediated degradation by inhibiting its ubiquitination. In particular, Geminin ensures basal levels of CDT1 during S phase and its accumulation during mitosis. Consistently, inhibition of Geminin synthesis during M phase leads to impairment of pre-RC formation and DNA replication during the following cell cycle. Moreover, we show that inhibition of CDK1 during mitosis, and not Geminin depletion, is sufficient for premature formation of pre-RCs, indicating that CDK activity is the major mitotic inhibitor of licensing in human cells. Taken together with recent data from our laboratory, our results demonstrate that Geminin is both a negative and positive regulator of pre-RC formation in human cells, playing a positive role in allowing CDT1 accumulation in G2-M, and preventing relicensing of origins in S-G2.     

Regulation of androgen receptor and prostate cancer growth by cyclin-dependent kinase 5

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed male malignancy. The normal prostate development and prostate cancer progression are mediated by androgen receptor (AR). Recently, the roles of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and its activator, p35, in cancer biology are explored one after another. We have previously demonstrated that Cdk5 may regulate proliferation of thyroid cancer cells. In addition, we also identify that Cdk5 overactivation can be triggered by drug treatments and leads to apoptosis of prostate cancer cells. The aim of this study is to investigate how Cdk5 regulates AR activation and growth of prostate cancer cells. At first, the data show that Cdk5 enables phosphorylation of AR at Ser-81 site through direct biochemical interaction and, therefore, results in the stabilization of AR proteins. The Cdk5-dependent AR stabilization causes accumulation of AR proteins and subsequent activation. Besides, the positive regulations of Cdk5-AR on cell growth are also determined in vitro and in vivo. S81A mutant of AR diminishes its interaction with Cdk5, reduces its nuclear localization, fails to stabilize its protein level, and therefore, decreases prostate cancer cell proliferation. Prostate carcinoma specimens collected from 177 AR-positive patients indicate the significant correlations between the protein levels of AR and Cdk5 or p35. These findings demonstrate that Cdk5 is an important modulator of AR and contributes to prostate cancer growth. Therefore, Cdk5-p35 may be suggested as diagnostic and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer in the near future.     

A dominant-negative mutant of androgen receptor coregulator ARA54 inhibits androgen receptor-mediated prostate cancer growth.

The ligand-bound androgen receptor (AR) regulates target genes via a mechanism involving coregulators such as androgen receptor-associated 54 (ARA54). We investigated whether the interruption of the AR coregulator function could lead to down-regulation of AR activity. Using in vitro mutagenesis and a yeast two-hybrid screening assay, we have isolated a mutant ARA54 (mt-ARA54) carrying a point mutation at amino acid 472 changing a glutamic acid to lysine, which acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of AR transactivation. In transient transfection assays of prostate cancer cell lines, the mt-ARA54 suppressed endogenous mutated AR-mediated and exogenous wild-type AR-mediated transactivation in LNCaP and PC-3 cells, respectively. In DU145 cells, the mt-ARA54 suppressed exogenous ARA54 but not other coregulators, such as ARA55-enhanced or SRC-1-enhanced AR transactivation. In the LNCaP cells stably transfected with the plasmids encoding the mt-ARA54 under the doxycycline inducible system, the overexpression of the mt-ARA54 inhibited cell growth and endogenous expression of prostate-specific antigen. Mammalian two-hybrid assays further demonstrated that the mt-ARA54 can disrupt the interaction between wild-type ARA54 molecules, suggesting that ARA54 dimerization or oligomerization may play an essential role in the enhancement of AR transactivation. Together, our results demonstrate that a dominant-negative AR coregulator can suppress AR transactivation and cell proliferation in prostate cancer cells. Further studies may provide a new therapeutic approach for blocking AR-mediated prostate cancer growth.     

槲皮素对前列腺癌细胞增殖及转录因子Sp1功能的抑制作用

雄激素受体(androgenreceptor,AR)作为核转录因子,其高表达、基因突变以及AR辅激活因子的过表达等造成AR的异常激活与前列腺癌细胞的增殖、恶化转移、多药耐药等密切相关.天然黄酮槲皮素(quercetin),是一很有潜力的预防和治疗前列腺肿瘤的化合物.槲皮素不仅抑制前列腺癌细胞LNCaP的增殖,并呈剂量依赖性,而且下调前列腺癌中AR的表达、抑制AR的转录激活功能.GCbox是AR核心启动子的主要正调控元件,是转录因子Sp1的结合位点.细胞转染结果表明,槲皮素能抑制Sp1蛋白对AR启动子的激活作用,可能是槲皮素下调AR表达的机理之一.进一步研究显示,槲皮素还能明显抑制Sp1蛋白对AR转录激活功能的增强作用.Western印迹结果显示,槲皮素对Sp1蛋白表达无明显影响,但能够诱导c-Jun的高表达,而高表达的c-Jun蛋白能逆转Sp1蛋白对AR的转录激活作用,由此推测,槲皮素可能通过介导c-Jun与Sp1的蛋白质相互作用,抑制Sp1的功能,进而起到抑制AR表达和功能的作用.免疫沉淀结果又进一步证实了Sp1与c-Jun二者的相互作用.因此,槲皮素可能通过抑制前列腺癌细胞中AR的表达和功能抑制了细胞的增殖,其分子机理可能与槲皮素诱导的c-Jun与Sp1蛋白相互作用、降低Sp1对AR的转录激活作用有关.     

Depletion of licensing inhibitor geminin causes centrosome overduplication and mitotic defects

Metazoans limit origin firing to once per cell cycle by oscillations in cyclin-dependent kinases and the replication licensing inhibitor geminin. Geminin inhibits pre-replication complex assembly by preventing Cdt1 from recruiting the minichromosome maintenance proteins to chromatin. Geminin depletion results in genomic over-replication in Drosophila and human cell lines. Here, we show that loss of geminin affects other cell cycle-dependent events in addition to DNA replication. Geminin inactivation causes centrosome overduplication without passage through mitosis in human normal and cancer cells. Centrosomes are microtubule-organizing centres that are duplicated during S phase and have an important role in the fidelity of chromosome transmission by nucleating the mitotic spindle. Consistent with this, geminin-depleted cells show multiple mitotic defects, including multipolar spindles, when driven into mitosis by checkpoint abrogation. These results show that the consequences of geminin loss exceed its immediate role in DNA replication and extend to promoting chromosome mis-segregation in mitosis.