Longitudinal Relationships Among Overweight,Life Satisfaction,and Aspirations in Young Women

Objective: This study investigated associations of overweight status and changes in overweight status over time with life satisfaction and future aspirations among a community sample of young women. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 7865 young women, initially 18 to 23 years of age, completed two surveys that were 4 years apart. These women provided data on their future life aspirations in the areas of further education, work/career, marital status, and children, as well as their satisfaction with achievements to date in a number of life domains. Women reported their height and weight and their sociodemographic characteristics, including current socioeconomic status (occupation). Results: Young women's aspirations were cross‐sectionally related to BMI category, such that obese women were less likely to aspire to further education, although this relationship seemed explained largely by current occupation. Even after adjusting for current occupation, young women who were obese were more dissatisfied with work/career/study, family relationships, partner relationships, and social activities. Weight status was also longitudinally associated with aspirations and life satisfaction. Women who were overweight or obese at both surveys were more likely than other women to aspire to “other” types of employment (including self‐employed and unpaid work in the home) as opposed to full‐time employment. They were also less likely to be satisfied with study or partner relationships. Women who resolved their overweight/obesity status were more likely to aspire to being childless than other women. Discussion: These results suggest that being overweight/obese may have a lasting effect on young women's life satisfaction and their future life aspirations.     

Sociodemographic characteristics and intentions for further births in France

The purpose of this study, which interviewed 356 couples of childbearing age in the Lyon region of France, was to analyze the different attitudes of men and women towards parenthood, and to identify the social and personal characteristics which may modify these attitudes. The 2 groups in the study, the 183 couples who wanted an additional child and the 127 who did not, were compared in relation to socioeconomic status, woman's work status, woman's age at 1st birth, and absence of a child of each sex. (46 couples with conflicting intentions were excluded.) The couples intending to have further children on average had significantly fewer children, were younger, and less frequently had a child of each sex. The other factors were statiscally insignificant. The fertility rate of couples not wanting more children was above the replacement rate of 2.6. The rate for couples intending to have another child was comparable at 2.4, except that the average 5 year age differences between the 2 groups was higher than the usual interval between 2 births, reinforcing the trend toward a model family of 2 or 3 children and greater intervals between consecutive births.     

The Amount of Diurnal Sleep,and Complaints of Fatigue and Poor Sleep,in Night-Working Women: The Effects of Having Children

This study deals with female industrial night workers. There is little scientific literature on this topic since, until recently, such shift systems have in most countries been restricted to men. The amount of diurnal sleep, as well as complaints about fatigue and poor sleep, were compared in women who were (n = 17) or were not (n = 26) caring for children. The women were engaged at an assembly line, working nights (22:00-06:00) from Monday to Friday. They filled out sleep logs for 10 consecutive weeks and were interviewed about complaints concerned with fatigue and poor sleep. A comparison of the diurnal sleeps taken between consecutive night shifts showed that the average total length of daily sleep, as well as the time of onset of the first sleep, did not differ between the groups; however, workers who had children tended to show, in comparison with their childless colleagues, more sleep episodes per day and a shorter first sleep. The total number of complaints about poor sleep and fatigue did not differ between the groups; nevertheless, workers with children complained more of difficulty in falling asleep, had a greater dissatisfaction with the amount of sleep on weekdays, and tended to show an increasing fatigue as the week progressed. We conclude that there are social pressures in women who care for children that are in addition to those that are a general consequence of night work. These results reinforce a need for the implementation of measures that organise child care, so helping a mother who wishes to work also outside the home.     

The Amount of Diurnal Sleep, and Complaints of Fatigue and Poor Sleep, in Night-Working Women: The Effects of Having Children

This study deals with female industrial night workers. There is little scientific literature on this topic since, until recently, such shift systems have in most countries been restricted to men. The amount of diurnal sleep, as well as complaints about fatigue and poor sleep, were compared in women who were (n = 17) or were not (n = 26) caring for children. The women were engaged at an assembly line, working nights (22:00-06:00) from Monday to Friday. They filled out sleep logs for 10 consecutive weeks and were interviewed about complaints concerned with fatigue and poor sleep. A comparison of the diurnal sleeps taken between consecutive night shifts showed that the average total length of daily sleep, as well as the time of onset of the first sleep, did not differ between the groups; however, workers who had children tended to show, in comparison with their childless colleagues, more sleep episodes per day and a shorter first sleep. The total number of complaints about poor sleep and fatigue did not differ between the groups; nevertheless, workers with children complained more of difficulty in falling asleep, had a greater dissatisfaction with the amount of sleep on weekdays, and tended to show an increasing fatigue as the week progressed. We conclude that there are social pressures in women who care for children that are in addition to those that are a general consequence of night work. These results reinforce a need for the implementation of measures that organise child care, so helping a mother who wishes to work also outside the home.     

Sociodemographic attributes of Iranian wives who reported unwanted pregnancies

In a 1989 Family Planning Study in Iran, 40 percent of the married women of reproductive age reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted and unintended. This finding is consistent with the results obtained from a number of studies undertaken in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East. Although the phenomenon of unwanted pregnancy is a significant topic in the population studies, it has received very little attention. This paper shows the differences between two groups: group A, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were wanted, and group B, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted. The findings of this study clearly show significant differences between these two groups in regard to some key sociodemographic attributes: wife/husband's education, actual and desired fertility, wife's current age, past and present practice of contraceptive methods, and extent of satisfaction with family planning services are among the attributes differentiating these two groups. Our examination of these variables suggests that group B had higher parity, fertility, less desire for more children, less use of contraceptive techniques, and less satisfaction with the efficiency of the contraceptive techniques than group A. The relationship between education and wanted/unwanted pregnancies is mixed. The urban women who wanted pregnancies and were 25 years old or older were more educated than those who did not want pregnancies. On the contrary, the rural women whose pregnancies were not wanted were more educated than those who wanted pregnancies regardless of age, parity, and locality differences. Furthermore, the urban/rural women with different levels of parities who did not want to be pregnant were more educated than the urban/rural women who wanted pregnancies. Finally, the standardized regression coefficients, obtained in logistic regression, reveal that among urban women the desire for more children and parity are the first and second most significant independent variables differentiating between group A and group B. Among rural women, living children and the desire for more children were the first and second most important variables differentiating between group A and group B.     

Main results of recent Hungarian family planning studies.

The demographic situation in Hungary is analyzed by presenting results of 5 different surveys on family planning carried out between 1958-1974. During those 16 years the practice of planning the number of children desired grew. In 1958 only 63 out of 100 women planned the number of children at marriage, and in 1974 98% gave an affirmative reply. The number of children planned by women declined from 2.25 in 1958 to 2.05 in 1966, and then increased to 2.19 in 1974. More and more childless married women want to give birth to a child. In early studies, 66-67% desired a child, and in 1974 83% desired a child. The idea of a family size with 2 children has become the rule in Hungary. In 1958 only 76% of the women used birth control; by 1966 the percentage was 84. 37% in 1958, 44% in 1966, and 26% in 1969 used both contraception and induced abortion. By 1972, 42% of the women interviewed had had an abortion. The use of contraception has increased considerably from 58% in 1958 to 75% in 1974. In 1974, 36% of the women using contraception were taking oral pills and only 7% were using the IUD.     

Sociodemographic attributes of Iranian wives who reported unwanted pregnancies

Abstract

In a 1989 Family Planning Study in Iran, 40 percent of the married women of reproductive age reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted and unintended. This finding is consistent with the results obtained from a number of studies undertaken in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East. Although the phenomenon of unwanted pregnancy is a significant topic in the population studies, it has received very little attention. This paper shows the differences between two groups: group A, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were wanted, and group B, those married women who reported that their last or current pregnancies were unwanted. The findings of this study clearly show significant differences between these two groups in regard to some key sociodemographic attributes: wife/husband's education, actual and desired fertility, wife's current age, past and present practice of contraceptive methods, and extent of satisfaction with family planning services are among the attributes differentiating these two groups. Our examination of these variables suggests that group B had higher parity, fertility, less desire for more children, less use of contraceptive techniques, and less satisfaction with the efficiency of the contraceptive techniques than group A. The relationship between education and wanted/unwanted pregnancies is mixed. The urban women who wanted‐pregnancies and were 25 years old or older were more educated than those who did not want pregnancies. On the contrary, the rural women whose pregnancies were not wanted were more educated than those who wanted pregnancies regardless of age, parity, and locality differences. Furthermore, the urban/rural women with different levels of parities who did not want to be pregnant were more educated than the urban/rural women who wanted pregnancies. Finally, the standardized regression coefficients, obtained in logistic regression, reveal that among urban women the desire for more children and parity are the first and second most significant independent variables differentiating between group A and group B. Among rural women, living children and the desire for more children were the first and second most important variables differentiating between group A and group B.     

Does Sexual Conflict between Mother and Father Lead to Fertility Decline?

Fertility decline is a great challenge to evolutionary approaches to human behavior. In this study, we apply the perspective of sexual conflict between mother and father to the fertility decline. We predict that, under serial monogamy allowing for mate changes, the ideal number of children for women should be smaller than that for men, because the cost of reproduction for women should be higher than that for men. Our reasoning is that if the cost of child-bearing and child-rearing is higher for women than men, and if women, who therefore would want a smaller number of children than their husbands, have gained more power in reproductive decision-making within a couple owing to the modernization of society, fertility should decline. Until now, few evolutionary studies have analyzed empirical data in modern developed societies with such a perspective. Our questionnaire survey in an urban area in Japan revealed that mothers did experience greater cost during childcare than fathers. However, in contrast to our prediction, we found no sex differences in the ideal number of children between mothers and their husbands in many cases. About 60% of parents remembered wanting two children when they were childless. Moreover, mothers and their husbands had equal power in their decision-making regarding having children. After presenting these results, we discuss some perspectives to advance our understanding of fertility decline in terms of sexual conflict.     

Involving consumers in the development of an educational program for cystic fibrosis carrier screening.

Input from consumers of health care was sought in developing an educational program to be provided to individuals who are considering carrier testing for cystic fibrosis (CF). In addition, we assessed the ability of health professionals to predict consumers' priorities with regard to such information. A focus group of six middle school teachers formulated questions that they would ask in trying to decide whether they wanted carrier screening for CF. Then, other adults with (n = 39) and without (n = 60) a family history of CF were presented with the questions and were asked to select the questions in the order in which they would want them answered if offered the carrier test. After each question was answered, they were asked whether they would want the carrier test if it were offered to them. CF clinic staff, clinical geneticists, and genetic counselors (n = 31) were asked to select the questions in the order in which they believed that an adult from the general population would want them answered. There were no differences in the order in which adults with and without a family history of CF would want questions answered. Consumers would want to learn about the carrier test as well as their risk of being a carrier and of having a child with CF, before receiving information on reproductive options and the effect that a child with CF would have on the family. Of the 44% of consumers who changed their mind about wanting screening during the course of selecting questions, 52% did so after the first question that they selected.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Marital Dissolution and Child Educational Outcomes in San Borja,Bolivia

Serial monogamy is likely an adaptive mating strategy for women when the expected future fitness gains with a different partner are greater than expected future fitness with one’s current partner. Using interview data from more than 400 women in San Borja, Bolivia, discrete-time event history analyses and random effects regression analyses were conducted to examine predictors of marital dissolution, separated by remarriage status, and child educational outcomes. Male income was found to be inversely associated with women’s risk of “divorce and remarriage,” whereas female income is positively associated with women’s risk of “divorce, but not remarriage.” Children of women who divorce and remarry tend to have significantly lower educational outcomes than children of married parents, but women with higher incomes are able to buffer their children from the negative educational outcomes of divorce and remarriage. Counter to predictions, there is no evidence that women with kin in the community have a significant difference in likelihood of divorce or a buffering effect of child outcomes. In conclusion, predictors of divorce differ depending on whether the woman goes on to remarry, suggesting that male income may be a better predictor of a serial monogamy strategy whereas female income predicts marital dissolution only. Thus, women who are relatively autonomous because of greater income may not benefit from remarriage.     

Perceptions about the value and cost of children: Australian and Papua New Guinean high school youth

The present study of 329 Australian and 281 Papua New Guinean (PNG) high school youth compared students' perceptions of the economic role of children, the importance of personal aspirations, evidence of support for the conjugal family and for cultural props. When asked about the number of children they wanted to have, the majority of students (86%) wanted from 2 to 4 children. Mean family sizes were 3.7 children for PNG males, 2.7 for PNG females, 2.5 for Australian males, and 2.9 for Australian females. 43% of PNG males wanted 4 or more children, but only 27% of Australian male students wanted this number. The most striking result is that PNG female students expected to have 2 or 3 children only, while their mean family size was slightly lower than Australian females. Thus, if values of children reflect fertility behavior, the analysis of values and costs of children would be expected to reveal a somewhat strong similarity between Australian youth and PNG female students, or at least a marked difference in the perceptions of PNG male and female students. As predicted, the economic role of children was more important to PNG students, and considerably less so to young Australians. Predicted differences in personal aspirations were less clear cut, but young Australians cited more frequently the restrictions and economic costs in having children. In addition, Australians emphasized more than PNG students the pleasure, pride, fulfilment and achievement in having children. As expected in a low fertility country, Australian students mentioned more often the love and companionship of children, although students in both countries had similar views about the impact of children on the marital relationship. Lineage and religious benefits from children were more salient to PNG youth.     

High income men have high value as long-term mates in the U.S.: personal income and the probability of marriage,divorce, and childbearing in the U.S.

Using data from the first Census data set that includes complete measures of male biological fertility for a large-scale probability sample of the U.S. population (the 2014 wave of the Study of Income and Program Participation-N = 55,281), this study shows that high income men are more likely to marry, are less likely to divorce, if divorced are more likely to remarry, and are less likely to be childless than low income men. Men who remarry marry relatively younger women than other men, on average, although this does not vary by personal income. For men who divorce who have children, high income is not associated with an increased probability of having children with new partners. Income is not associated with the probability of marriage for women and is positively associated with the probability of divorce. High income women are less likely to remarry after divorce and more likely to be childless than low income women. For women who divorce who have children, high income is associated with a lower chance of having children with new partners, although the relationship is curvilinear. These results are behavioral evidence that women are more likely than men to prioritize earning capabilities in a long-term mate and suggest that high income men have high value as long-term mates in the U.S.     

Postponing or rejecting parenthood? Results of a survey among female academic professionals

The current surge in childlessness is often seen as an alternative lifestyle amidst growing pluralism and individualism. The results of this study indicate that several subgroups of childless women need to be differentiated: those who actively decide to forgo children in favour of other life pursuits and those who merely defer the decision. Both have accumulated a high degree of human capital in their education or career-building paths. Thus, the increase of a woman's time invested in education or career formation takes its toll on the time available for childrearing. A survey performed among female academics (N = 193) brought to light that among childless women, many merely mean to postpone motherhood until their career prospects are established. Differences between those who outwardly reject motherhood and those who defer the decision can be seen in a variety of job- and career-related aspects. However, due to misconceptions about fertility, many of those who merely intended to postpone children may inevitably end up 'involuntarily childless'. As this trend is most likely to increase in the near future, the resolution of this conflict will be an important milestone in the development of modern industrialized countries. As can be seen from this survey, financial benefits will not induce women to enter into motherhood. Rather, societal and infrastructural changes have to be brought about in order to induce women to enter into motherhood.     

Fertility intentions: are the undecided more like those who want more or want no more children?

In fertility surveys often women (and sometimes men) are asked their fertility desires, i.e. whether they want a/nother birth or not. Some respond that they are undecided. This study examines whether these persons are more like those who say they want more births or like those who say they want no more births. Data on married men and women in 29 Demographic and Health Surveys with sample sizes ranging from 300 to 3000 are used. A logistic regression equation is estimated within each country for those with known desires and then used to classify each person who was undecided. In all sub-Saharan African countries (n=20) and for both sexes, 50% or more of the undecided persons are classified as wanting more children (with one exception of wives in Kenya). By contrast in all five Latin American countries for both sexes less than 50% of the undecided were classified in the 'want more' group (with an exception of husbands in the Dominican Republic). Generally, the undecided tend to be classified the same as the majority among those in the survey with stated desires.     

Becoming voluntarily childless: An exploratory study in a Scottish city

Abstract

This paper looks at motives that inform the decision to remain voluntarily childless. It is assumed that voluntary childlessness is not a pathological condition nor is it determined by specific social situations. Situations provide the context within which motives emerge, in the case of voluntary childlessness providing individuals or couples with the opportunity to consider unconventional interpretations of family life that may eventually lead to its rejection. Individuals who become childless prior to finding a “partner” tend to come from families which deviated from the nuclear ideal and to reject parenthood. Those whose decision emerges after a “partnership” has been formed tend to have created alternative life styles and wish to protect the advantages of living without children. It is tentatively concluded that the proportion of couples remaining childless will increase.     

Fertility intentions and subsequent fertility behaviour in Matlab: do fertility intentions matter?

This study examines the extent of the interrelationship between future fertility intention and subsequent fertility behaviour in rural Bangladesh using longitudinal data. It confirms that fertility intention is an important predictor of subsequent fertility behaviour for rural Bangladeshi women. Women wanting no more children are over three times less likely to have a child during a 5-year follow-up than those wanting more children. A multivariate model using logistic regression shows that fertility intention is a useful indicator for fertility behaviour, when background and life-cycle variables are controlled. The different patterns of fertility intentions by socioeconomic and demographic subgroups suggest that different programme strategies should be designed for specific target groups.     

Determinants of the sex ratio at birth: Review of recent literature

Abstract

Use of contraception by rural Egyptian women who desire no more children is examined within a modified microeconomic framework. Four sets of factors are hypothesized to influence current use of contraception: (1) costs of contraception, ‘(2) factors influencing the slope of the desired family size function, (3) anticipated costs of child rearing and (4) strength of motivation for fertility regulation. Women's education and two measures of psychic costs were found to be important predictors of contraceptive use. Factors affecting the demand for children and thus indirectly influencing the motivation for fertility regulation were also important. Land ownership, cultivating status of the household, and educational expectations for children were significantly related to current use. Strength of motivation, although significant, was less strongly related to use of contraception. The findings suggest women who want no more children, but who are not practicing contraception, are affected by factors influencing both the costs of contraception and the costs of an unwanted child.     

What does my doctor think? Preferences for knowing the doctor's opinion among women considering clinical testing for BRCA1/2 mutations

The traditional emphasis on nondirectiveness in genetic counseling has become increasingly controversial with the rapid expansion of genetic testing in clinical medicine. This study was done to determine whether women considering clinical testing for BRCA1/2 mutations want to know their health care providers' opinions about whether or not they should undergo testing. Participating in the study was a retrospective cohort of 335 women who participated in a university-based clinic offering breast cancer risk assessment, genetic counseling, and BRCA1/2 testing between January, 1996, and April, 1998. A total of 242 women (77%) wanted to know if the doctors at the Breast and Ovarian Cancer Risk Evaluation Program (BCREP) thought they should be tested, 28 women (9%) were unsure, and 46 women (14%) did not want a BCREP doctor's opinion on testing. A total of 158 women (49%) wanted to know if their primary doctor thought they should be tested, 31 women (10%) were unsure, and 130 women (41%) did not want to know. Desire to know the opinion of the BCREP doctors was inversely associated with having undergone BRCA1/2 testing (RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.73-0.95) and having a breast cancer diagnosis (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.75-0.99). Desire to know their primary doctor's opinion was inversely associated with having undergone BRCA1/2 testing (RR 0.72, 95% CI 0.56-0.92). Our study suggests that over three-quarters of women who considered clinical testing for BRCA1/2 mutations wanted to know the opinions of the cancer genetics doctors and almost half wanted to know their primary doctor's opinion about whether or not they should undergo testing. These results support the use of models of genetic counseling that allow for sharing the health care providers' opinions when desired by the patient.     

Race matters in lesbian donor insemination: whiteness and heteronormativity as co-constituted narratives

As in other areas of social life where the privileging of whiteness is rendered invisible, the donor insemination choices of white lesbians making individual choices about the race of potential children are de-racialized and de-politicized. Using qualitative data, we focus on how white women who choose white donors rely on racial markers, while avoiding overt discussions of race, to explain their racial preferences in childrearing. The individuals we interviewed rarely questioned their decision to use white donors, or even verbally acknowledged their decision. For instance, while no participants explicitly stated, ‘I wanted a white child’, they did display preferences in terms of skin colour, hair colour, eye colour, and ethnicity. That is, individuals assumed whiteness and assumed this decision did not have to be explained. Our research deconstructs this narrative and challenges its invisibility.     

Who remains childless?

Who are the men and women who are childless in their mid-30s? Life history data for a British cohort born in 1946 show that age at marriage and marital breakdown were clearly associated with childlessness. Women who were only children were more likely to be childless than those with siblings. Further, early menarcheal age, being highly qualified and having a high status occupation were indirectly related to childlessness. For men, particularly amongst those who had experienced a broken marriage, it was the most ambitious, the highly educated and those in professional occupations who were relatively more likely to be childless.