Inter-embryo competition in the progeny of autotriploid Aloineae (Liliaceae)

In reciprocal crosses between diploid and triploid Aloineae the progeny are largely diploid or diploid plus one or two chromosomes, but in reciprocal crosses between triploids and tetraploids they are tetraploid or nearly so. Thus the triploids contribute circa haploid gametes to the progeny when crossed with diploids but circa diploid gametes when crossed with tetraploids. These results are compared with those of a number of earlier workers. It is concluded that the bias in the frequency of progeny types towards diploidy or tetraploidy, depending on the ploidy level of the plant which is crossed with the triploid, is caused by inter-embryo competition. Those embryos with an endosperm/embryo factor of 1.5, the value found in normal diploid/diploid crosses having triploid endosperms, are selected in preference to those with factors higher or lower than 1.5.Inter-gamete competition also occurs among the euploid and aneuploid gametes produced by the triploids. This is more pronounced on the male side, because the degree of survival of aneuploid pollen from the triploids into the next generation is much lower than that of aneuploid egg nuclei.Non-reduction in the triploids gives rise to occasional pentaploid progeny in crosses with tetraploids, but it is more probable that in diploid/triploid crosses tetraploid progeny are the products of non-reduction in the diploid.     

Triploid bridge and role of parthenogenesis in the evolution of autopolyploidy

Autopolyploidization is considered to play an important role in plant evolution. In polyploidization, the polyploid evolves from the original diploid cytotype, in which the triploid state is considered to mediate the process (triploid bridge). Nevertheless, the fitness of triploid individuals seems to be too low to facilitate the polyploidization process (triploid block). The evolutionary condition of autopolyploidy was analyzed using a mathematical model focusing on the role of parthenogenesis in triploid and tetraploid individuals. In addition, offspring were assumed to arise by sexual reproduction by conjugations between haploid, diploid, and triploid gametes produced by diploid, tetraploid, and triploid individuals. According to the analysis, even if triploid block suppresses the fitness of sexually produced triploids, the polyploidization process can proceed when parthenogenesis occurs frequently. If only triploids frequently reproduce parthenogenetically, the evolutionary consequences tend to depend on the fitness of the tetraploid individuals. On the basis of a predetermined parameter set, if tetraploid fitness is relatively low, all three ploidies can coexist. Otherwise, tetraploidization occurs. In this case, triploid parthenogenesis promotes not only triploidization but also tetraploidization. However, if both triploids and tetraploids frequently reproduce parthenogenetically, the ploidy levels with the highest fitness are likely to dominate in the population through direct competition among cytotypes.     

The role of triploid hybrids in the evolutionary dynamics of mixed-ploidy populations

Theory suggests that the evolution of autotetraploids within diploid populations will be opposed by a minority-cytotype mating disadvantage. The role of triploids in promoting autotetraploid establishment is rarely considered, yet triploids are often found in natural populations and are formed in experimental crosses. Here, I evaluate the effects of triploids on autotetraploid evolution using computer simulations and by synthesizing research on the evolutionary dynamics of mixed-ploidy populations in Chamerion angustifolium (Onagraceae). Simulations show that the fate of a tetraploid in a diploid population varies qualitatively depending on the relative fitness of triploids, the ploidy of their gametes and the fitness of diploids relative to tetraploids. In general, even partially fit triploids can increase the likelihood of diploid–tetraploid coexistence and, in some cases, facilitate tetraploid fixation. Within the diploid–tetraploid contact zone of C. angustifolium , mixed populations are common (43%), and often (39%) contain triploids. Greenhouse and field studies indicate that triploid fitness is low (9% of diploids) but variable. Furthermore, euploid gametes produced by triploids can be x , 2 x or 3 x and contribute the majority (62%) of new polyploids formed in each generation (2.3 × 10⁻³). Although triploid bridge, alone, may not account for the evolution of autotetraploidy in C. angustifolium , it probably contributes to the prevalence of mixed-ploidy populations in this species. Therefore, in contrast to hybrids in homoploid species, triploids may actually facilitate rather than diminish the fixation of tetraploids by enhancing the rate of formation.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 82 , 537–546.     

Mating interactions between coexisting dipoloid, triploid and tetraploid cytotypes ofHieracium Echioides (Asteraceae)

Experimental crosses between diploids, triploids and tetraploids ofHieracium echioides were made to examine mating interactions. Specifically, cytotype diversity in progeny from experimental crosses, intercytotype pollen competition as a reproductive barrier between diploids and tetraploids, and differences in seed set between intra- and intercytotype crosses were studied. Only diploids were found in progeny from 2x × 2x crosses. The other types of crosses yielded more than one cytotype in progeny, but one cytotype predominated in each cross type: diploids (92%) in 2x × 3x crosses, tetraploids (88%) in 3x × 2x crosses, triploids (96%) in 2x × 4x crosses, triploids (90%) in 4x × 2x crosses, tetraploids (60%) in 3x × 3x crosses, pentaploids (56%) in 3x × 4x crosses, triploids (80%) in 4x × 3x crosses and tetraploids (88%) in 4x × 4x crosses. No aneuploids have been detected among karyologically analyzed plants. Unreduced egg cell production was detected in triploids and tetraploids, but formation of unreduced pollen was recorded only in two cases in triploids. Triploid plants produced x, 2x and 3x gametes: in male gametes x (92%) gametes predominated whereas in female gametes 3x (88%) gametes predominated. Cytotype diversity in progeny from crosses where diploids and tetraploids were pollinated by mixture of pollen from diploid and tetraploid plants suggested intercytotype pollen competition to serve as a prezygotic reproductive barrier. No statistically significant difference in seed set obtained from intra- and intercytotype crosses between diploids and tetraploids was observed, suggesting the absence of postzygotic reproductive barriers among cytotypes.     

The role of triploids in the origin and evolution of polyploids of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Turnera sidoides</Emphasis> complex (Passifloraceae,Turneroideae)

Triploids can play an important role in polyploid evolution. However, their frequent sterility is an obstacle for the origin and establishment of neotetraploids. Here we analyzed the microsporogenesis of triploids (x?=?7) and the crossability among cytotypes of Turnera sidoides, aiming to test the impact of triploids on the origin and demographic establishment of tetraploids in natural populations. Triploids of T. sidoides exhibit irregular meiotic behavior. The high frequency of monovalents and of trivalents with non-convergent orientations results in unbalanced and/or non-viable male gametes. In spite of abnormalities in chromosome pairing and unbalanced chromosome segregation, triploids are not completely sterile and yielded up to 67% of viable pollen. Triploids that originated by the fusion of 2n?×?n gametes of the same taxon showed more regular meiotic behavior and higher fertility than triploids from the contact zone of diploids and tetraploids or triploids of hybrid origin. The reproductive isolation of T. sidoides cytotypes of different ploidy level is not strict and the ‘triploid block’ may be overcome occasionally. Triploids of T. sidoides produce diploid and triploid progeny suggesting that new generations of polyploids could originate from crosses between triploids or from backcrosses with diploids. The capability of T. sidoides to multiply asexually by rhizomes, would enhance the likelihood that a low frequency of neopolyploids can be originated and maintained in natural populations of T. sidoides.     

The role of tetraploids in the sexual-asexual cycle in dandelions (Taraxacum)

Apomictic plants often produce pollen that can function in crosses with related sexuals. Moreover, facultative apomicts can produce some sexual offspring. In dandelions, Taraxacum, a sexual-asexual cycle between diploid sexuals and triploid apomicts, has been described, based on experimental crosses and population genetic studies. Little is known about the actual hybridization processes in nature. We therefore studied the sexual-asexual cycle in a mixed dandelion population in the Netherlands. In this population, the frequencies of sexual diploids and triploids were 0.31 and 0.68, respectively. In addition, less than 1% tetraploids were detected. Diploids were strict sexuals, triploids were obligate apomicts, but tetraploids were most often only partly apomictic, lacking certain elements of apomixis. Tetraploid seed fertility in the field was significantly lower than that of apomictic triploids. Field-pollinated sexual diploids produced on average less than 2% polyploid offspring, implying that the effect of hybridization in the 2x-3x cycle in Taraxacum will be low. Until now, 2x-3x crosses were assumed to be the main pathway of new formation of triploid apomicts in the sexual-asexual cycle in Taraxacum. However, tetraploid pollen donors produced 28 times more triploid offspring in experimental crosses with diploid sexuals than triploid pollen donors. Rare tetraploids may therefore act as an important bridge in the formation of new triploid apomicts.     

Cytotype distribution inEmpetrum (Ericaceae) at various spatial scales in the Czech Republic

Ploidy levels inEmpetrum (crowberry) from the Czech Republic and from one adjacent locality in Poland were estimated by flow cytometry to examine cytotype distribution patterns at large (within the country), medium (within mountain ranges) and small (within particular localities) spatial scales. Diploid, triploid, and tetraploid individuals were found. Triploids are reported from Central Europe for the first time; they occurred in the Krkono?e Mts. Exclusively diploid plants were observed in three mountain ranges (the Kru?né hory Mts., Labské pískovce Mts., Adr?pa?sko-Teplické skály Mts.), exclusively tetraploids were observed in the Jeseníky Mts., and both cytotypes were observed in the ?umava Mts., Jizerské hory Mts. and Krkono?e Mts. Except for the latter mountain range, diploids and tetraploids were always found in different habitats. Spatial isolation is supposed to be the main barrier preventing cytotype mating. A mosaic-like sympatric occurrence of different cytotypes was demonstrated in the Krkono?e Mts., where peat bogs and rocky places were not spatially separated. Eight of 11 localities studied there were inhabited by diploids and tetraploids (five localities), diploids and triploids (one locality) or all three ploidy levels (two localities). Diploid and triploid plants occasionally intermingled at 0.3 × 0.3 m. Flower sex in crowberries was strongly associated with ploidy level: diploids usually had unisexual flowers, the tetraploids bore exclusively bisexual flowers. However, a few diploid plants with hermaphrodite flowers occurred in one population in the Krkono?e Mts.     

Ecology of two cytotypes ofButomus umbellatus I. Karyology and breeding behaviour

Chromosome numbers were counted inButomus umbellatus from 99 localities in both Czech and Slovak Republics and the karyotype morphology was studied. Basic chromosome sets are asymmetrical and uniform among diploids (2n=26) and triploids (2n=39). Diploids occur less frequently than triploids in this region. Their clonal populations are usually fertile owing to self-compatibility. The clonal populations of triploids are selfincompatible and usually sterile. Thus, the different self-compatibility is the main biological character distinguishing diploids from triploids. Pollen of triploids is viable in spite of meiotic irregularities in pollen mother cells (PMCs). Hybridization both between cytotypes and between the different triploid genets may take place, if they occur sympatrically. Offspring having diverse chromosome numbers between diploid and triploid level can originate as the consequence of such hybridization.     

Geographical and environmental range expansion through polyploidy in wild potatoes (Solanum section Petota)

Aim  To assess evidence for geographical and environmental range expansion through polyploidy in wild potatoes ( Solanum sect. Petota ). There are diploids, triploids, tetraploids, pentaploids and hexaploids in this group.
Location  Wild potatoes occur from the south-western USA (Utah and Colorado), throughout the tropical highlands of Mexico, Central America and the Andes, to Argentina, Chile and Uruguay.
Methods  We compiled 5447 reports of ploidy determination, covering 185 of the 187 species, of which 702 determinations are presented here for the first time. We assessed the frequency of cytotypes within species, and analysed the geographical and climatic distribution of ploidy levels.
Results  Thirty-six per cent of the species are entirely or partly polyploid. Multiple cytotypes exist in 21 species, mostly as diploid and triploid, but many more may await discovery. We report the first chromosome count (2 n = 24) for Solanum hintonii . Diploids occupy a larger area than polyploids, but diploid and tetraploid species have similar range sizes, and the two species with by far the largest range sizes are tetraploids. The fraction of the plants that are polyploids is much higher from Mexico to Ecuador than farther south. Compared with diploids, triploids tend to occur in warmer and drier areas, whereas higher-level polyploids tend to occur in relatively cold areas. Diploids are absent from Costa Rica to southern Colombia, the wettest part of the group's range.
Main conclusions  These results suggest that polyploidy played an important role in this group's environmental differentiation and range expansion.     

Are tetraploids more successful? Floral signals,reproductive success and floral isolation in mixed-ploidy populations of a terrestrial orchid

Background and Aims Polyploidization, the doubling of chromosome sets, is common in angiosperms and has a range of evolutionary consequences. Newly formed polyploid lineages are reproductively isolated from their diploid progenitors due to triploid sterility, but also prone to extinction because compatible mating partners are rare. Models have suggested that assortative mating and increased reproductive fitness play a key role in the successful establishment and persistence of polyploids. However, little is known about these factors in natural mixed-ploidy populations. This study investigated floral traits that can affect pollinator attraction and efficiency, as well as reproductive success in diploid and tetraploid Gymnadenia conopsea (Orchidaceae) plants in two natural, mixed-ploidy populations.Methods Ploidy levels were determined using flow cytometry, and flowering phenology and herbivory were also assessed. Reproductive success was determined by counting fruits and viable seeds of marked plants. Pollinator-mediated floral isolation was measured using experimental arrays, with pollen flow tracked by means of staining pollinia with histological dye.Key Results Tetraploids had larger floral displays and different floral scent bouquets than diploids, but cytotypes differed only slightly in floral colour. Significant floral isolation was found between the two cytotypes. Flowering phenology of the two cytotypes greatly overlapped, and herbivory did not differ between cytotypes or was lower in tetraploids. In addition, tetraploids had higher reproductive success compared with diploids.Conclusions The results suggest that floral isolation and increased reproductive success of polyploids may help to explain their successful persistence in mixed-ploidy populations. These factors might even initiate transformation of populations from pure diploid to pure tetraploid.     

Fitness differences among diploids, tetraploids, and their triploid progeny in Chamerion angustifolium: mechanisms of inviability and implications for polyploid evolution

Abstract. Theoretical models indicate that the evolution of tetraploids in diploid populations will depend on both the relative fitness of the tetraploid and that of the diploid-tetraploid hybrids. Hybrids are believed to have lower fitness due to imbalances in either the ploidy (endosperm imbalance) or the ratio of maternal to paternal genomes in their endosperm (genomic imprinting). In this study we created diploids, tetraploids, and hybrid triploids of Chamerion angustifolium from crosses between field-collected diploid and tetraploid plants and evaluated them at six life stages in a greenhouse comparison. Diploid offspring (from 2 x × 2 x crosses) had significantly higher seed production and lower biomass than tetraploid offspring (from 4 x × 4 x crosses). Relative to the diploid, the cumulative fitness of tetraploids was 0.67. In general, triploids (from 2 x × 4 x , 4 x × 2 x crosses) had significantly lower seed production, lower pollen viability, and higher biomass than diploid individuals. Triploid offspring derived from diploid maternal parents had lower germination rates, but higher pollen production than those with tetraploid mothers. Relative to diploids, the cumulative fitness of 2 x × 4 x triploids and 4 x × 2 x triploids was 0.12 and 0.06, respectively, providing some support for effect of differing maternal:paternal ratios and endosperm development as a mechanism of hybrid inviability. Collectively, the data show that tetraploids exhibit an inherent fitness disadvantage, although the partial viability and fertility of triploids may help to reduce the barrier to tetraploid establishment in sympatric populations.     

Production of second generation triploid and tetraploid rainbow trout by mating tetraploid males and diploid females — Potential of tetraploid fish

Summary First generation tetraploids were produced by hydrostatic pressure treatment before the first cleavage and raised until the adult stage. Their survival and growth were severely depressed when compared to the diploid control: after two years, no ovulated females were found although males produced sperm at 1 and 2 years of age and were mated individually with diploid females. The progenies were consistently normal with high survival rates. They were found to be almost all triploids by karyology, which failed to detect a significant rate of aneuploidies. However, the fertilizing ability of tetraploid males was always low (0 to 97% of the control; average 40%). Several arguments presented here support the hypothesis that diploid spermatozoas, which are wider than haploid ones, would be frequently blocked during their penetration through the micropyle canal. Second generation tetraploids were produced after such matings by heat shocks, causing the retention of the second polar body. Their survival and growth were much more satisfactory than in the first generation, although still lower than in diploid and triploid controls issuing from diploid parents. Performances of second generation triploids were comparable to those of diploids, and slightly better than those of conventional triploids issuing from diploid parents. 94.5% of the second generation tetraploids were male.     

Meiotic hybridogenesis in triploid Misgurnus loach derived from a clonal lineage

Triploid loaches Misgurnus anguillicaudatus are derived from unreduced diploid gametes produced by an asexual clonal lineage that normally undergoes gynogenetic reproduction. Here, we have investigated the reproductive system of two types of triploids: the first type carried maternally inherited clonal diploid genomes and a paternally inherited haploid genome from the same population; the second type had the same clonal diploid genomes but a haploid genome from another, genetically divergent population. The germinal vesicles of oocytes from triploid females (3n=75) contained only 25 bivalents, that is, 50 chromosomes. Flow cytometry revealed that the majority of the progeny resulting from fertilization of eggs from triploid females with normal haploid sperm were diploid. This indicates that triploid females mainly produced haploid eggs. Microsatellite analyses of the diploid progeny of triploid females showed that one allele of the clonal genotype was not transmitted to haploid eggs. Moreover, the identity of the eliminated allele differed between the two types of triploids. Our results demonstrate that there is preferential pairing of homologous chromosomes as well as the elimination of unmatched chromosomes in the course of haploid egg formation, that is, meiotic hybridogenesis. Two distinct genomes in the clone suggest its hybrid origin.     

Haematological characterization of loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus: comparison among diploid, triploid and tetraploid specimens

The purpose of this study was to determine whether diploid, triploid and tetraploid loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) differed in terms of their main haematological and physiological characteristics. Diploid and tetraploid fish were produced by crossing of natural diploids (2n x 2n) and natural tetraploids (4n x 4n), respectively. Triploid fish were produced by hybridization between diploid males and tetraploid females. The blood cells were significantly larger in polyploids, and the volumetric ratios of erythrocytes and leucocytes (thrombocyte and neutrophil) in tetraploids, triploids and diploids were consistent with the ploidy level ratio of 4:3:2. No significant differences were observed in haematocrit among polyploids. The erythrocyte count decreased with increased ploidy level, while total haemoglobin, mean cell volume, mean cellular haemoglobin content, and mean cell haemoglobin concentration all increased with increase in ploidy level. Erythrocyte osmotic brittleness declined in polyploids so that polyploid erythrocytes were more resistant to osmotic stress than diploid ones. Overall, loach with higher ploidy levels showed evidence of some advantages in haematological characteristics.     

Ploidy dimorphism and reproductive biology in Stenodrepanum bergii (Leguminosae), a rare South American endemism

This is the first report on chromosome numbers and the reproductive behaviour in Stenodrepanum Harms, a rare endemic and monotypic legume genus from the arid and salty areas of central-western Argentina. Sixty individuals belonging to two populations from two salty areas ("salinas") were surveyed and included mostly triploid (2n = 3x = 36) and only two diploid (2n = 2x = 24) plants. Meiosis in diploids is regular, with bivalent pairing and uniform and viable pollen. In contrast, meiosis in triploids is characterized by high trivalent pairing, with irregularly shaped pollen and variation in cytoplasm content and stainability, which is in agreement with an unbalanced segregation occurring in anaphases I and II. However, different triploid plants/individuals showed various degrees of pollen fertility, which may be attributed to particular genotypes. Research on reproductive biology events indicates sexual cross-pollinated reproduction enhanced by protogyny in both cytotypes. All plants produced seeds, but seedlings were only recovered from diploid plants pollinated with triploids, and even those eventually perished. Chromosome counts in these seedlings revealed aneuploid chromosome numbers owing to the combination of unbalanced gametes.     

Detection of individual ploidy levels with genotyping‐by‐sequencing (GBS) analysis

Ploidy levels sometimes vary among individuals or populations, particularly in plants. When such variation exists, accurate determination of cytotype can inform studies of ecology or trait variation and is required for population genetic analyses. Here, we propose and evaluate a statistical approach for distinguishing low‐level ploidy variants (e.g. diploids, triploids and tetraploids) based on genotyping‐by‐sequencing (GBS) data. The method infers cytotypes based on observed heterozygosity and the ratio of DNA sequences containing different alleles at thousands of heterozygous SNPs (i.e. allelic ratios). Whereas the method does not require prior information on ploidy, a reference set of samples with known ploidy can be included in the analysis if it is available. We explore the power and limitations of this method using simulated data sets and GBS data from natural populations of aspen (Populus tremuloides) known to include both diploid and triploid individuals. The proposed method was able to reliably discriminate among diploids, triploids and tetraploids in simulated data sets, and this was true for different levels of genetic diversity, inbreeding and population structure. Power and accuracy were minimally affected by low coverage (i.e. 2×), but did sometimes suffer when simulated mixtures of diploids, autotetraploids and allotetraploids were analysed. Cytotype assignments based on the proposed method closely matched those from previous microsatellite and flow cytometry data when applied to GBS data from aspen. An R package (gbs2ploidy) implementing the proposed method is available from CRAN.     

Spatial ecological and genetic structure of a mixed population of sexual diploid and apomictic triploid dandelions

Ecological differentiation is widely seen as an important factor enabling the stable coexistence of closely related plants of different ploidy levels. We studied ecological and genetic differentiation between co-occurring sexual diploid and apomictic triploid Taraxacum section Ruderalia by analysing spatial patterns both in the distribution of cytotypes and in the distribution of genetic variation within and between the cytotypes. A significant relationship between ploidy level and elevation was found. This mode of ecological differentiation however, was not sufficient to explain the significant spatial structure in the distribution of diploids and triploids within the population. Strong congruence was found between the spatial genetic patterns within the diploids and within the triploids. We argue that this congruence is an indication of gene flow between neighbouring plants of different ploidy levels.     

Chromosome inheritance in triploid Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas Thunberg

Reproduction and chromosome inheritance in triploid Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg) were studied in diploid female x triploid male (DT) and reciprocal (TD) crosses. Relative fecundity of triploid females was 13.4% of normal diploids. Cumulative survival from fertilized eggs to spat stage was 0.007% for DT crosses and 0.314% for TD crosses. Chromosome number analysis was conducted on surviving progeny from DT and TD crosses at 1 and 4 years of age. At Year 1, oysters from DT crosses consisted of 15% diploids (2n=20) and 85% aneuploids. In contrast, oysters from TD crosses consisted of 57.2% diploids, 30.9% triploids (3n=30) and only 11.9% aneuploids, suggesting that triploid females produced more euploid gametes and viable progeny than triploid males. Viable aneuploid chromosome numbers included 2n+1, 2n+2, 2n+3, 3n-2 and 3n-1. There was little change over time in the overall frequency of diploids, triploids and aneuploids. Among aneuploids, oysters with 2n+3 and 3n-2 chromosomes were observed at Year 1, but absent at Year 4. Triploid progeny were significantly larger than diploids by 79% in whole body weight and 98% in meat weight at 4 years of age. Aneuploids were significantly smaller than normal diploids. This study suggests that triploid Pacific oyster is not completely sterile and cannot offer complete containment of cultured populations.     

Morphometrical and acoustical comparison between diploid and tetraploid green toads

In the present paper we compare, on the basis of morphometrical characters and acoustical properties of the advertisement calls, a sample of 158 male green toads (Bufo viridis complex) collected in 12 breeding populations of south Kazakstan and north Kyrgyzstan. The samples of three populations resulted in only diploid toads (2n = 22), those of eight populations in only tetraploid toads (2k=44) whereas in one locality diploid, tetraploid and many triploid toads were collected. Diploid toads show significantly larger body size and proportionally larger head and shorter limbs than both tetraploids and triploids, whereas no evident morphometrical differences were observed between triploids and tetraploids. Diploid advertisement calls have spectral and temporal properties that significantly differ from those of both triploid and tetraploid advertisement calls. In particular, diploids produce significantly longer calls with higher pulse-rates and lower frequencies than those of tetraploids. We address the question of the factors that could be responsible for these differences and we discuss four hypotheses: (1) the direct effect of polyploid mutation, (2) genetic drift, (3) reproductive character displacement and (4) environmental selection.     

Size-Structures and Reproductive Characteristics in Diploid and Triploid Populations of Disporum sessile D. Don (Liliaceae)

Abstract Disporum sessile (Liliaceae), a perennial herb of temperate forests is composed of diploid (2n=16) and triploid (2n=24) populations. The size structure differed remarkably as triploid populations had few small plants and no seedlings. Triploid flowering plants were considerably larger than diploids. Triploids that flowered were 2.5 times larger than diploids that flowered and the size of vegetative ramets produced by triploids was twice as large. In triploids, fruiting rates were quite low only with inviable seeds and vegetative propagule size was greater than that of diploids. As regards growth parameters that help to increase plant size, triploids were superior to diploids. Differences in growth and reproductive parameters between diploids and triploids may contribute to forming different patch sizes.