Studies on the persistence and effects on soil fauna of some soil-applied systemic insecticides

Granular formulations of menazon, phorate and thionazin were applied to a sandy loam soil (pH = 6·1)in April and May as in-row treatments at commercial rates. They were also broadcast and mixed into the top 4 in of soil at concentrations (10 and 250 ppm of dry soil) which simulated the local in-row concentrations in areas large enough for sampling. Bioassays showed that 50 % of phorate, thionazin and menazon equivalents had disappeared in about 68, 57 and 23 days respectively from soil treated with 10 ppm of the insecticides. Small residues of the 250 ppm treatments still remained 2 years later. The initial rate of loss of activity of thionazin applied at 250 ppm was much slower than from a 10 ppm application whereas the activities of 250 and 10 ppm of menazon disappeared at similar rates. Phorate at 250 ppm killed almost all earthworms, Collembola, Acarina, free-living saprophytic and parasitic nematodes and Protozoa; 10 ppm phorate and 250 ppm of menazon also killed almost all Collembola and Acarina but the menazon was relatively harmless to earthworms. Collembola and mite populations began to increase when residues of phorate and menazon equivalents had decreased to about 2 and 20 ppm respectively, and after 15 months they were similar to those in untreated plots. The broadcast treatments initially decreased the rate of breakdown of leaf discs put in the soil but, after about 4 weeks, breakdown increased, sometimes above that in untreated plots. This was associated with a large increase in numbers of Enchytraeidae which were apparently unaffected by the insecticides. Four months after application, 1 lb/acre of phorate and 2 lb of menazon applied in seed drills 2 ft apart were not affecting Collembola in soil between the rows but were still decreasing the numbers within them. In -row phorate distributed along a 1·5 in diameter band of soil, 3 in deep, killed Collembola 3 in on either side but not 6 in away. It did not spread upwards in toxic quantities, but after rainfall, sufficient to kill Collembola leached at least 3 in downwards. We conclude that commercial in-row applications of chemicals like phorate are most unlikely to harm soil fertility, especially as the leaf-litter-destroying function of Collembola and other animals killed by phorate may be taken over by Enchytraeidae.     

The action of some systemic aphicides on the nymphs of Anthocoris nemorum (L.) and A. confusus Reut

The aphicides phorate, dimethoate and menazon were compared to elucidate the different pathways by which they can affect Anthocoris nymphs and their aphid prey.
When nymphs were caged in contact with deposits on bean leaves phorate and dimethoate had contact LC 50s of 20 and 3 μg/cm² respectively to Anthocoris nemorum and 46 and 6 μg/cm² to A. confusus. When the nymphs were confined on treated leaves on the opposite surface to the deposits, neither phorate nor dimethoate killed them. Menazon did not kill anthocorids at any dosage. All three aphicides killed over 50% of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Kalt.) on bean leaves at 1.6 μg/cm² whether the aphids were on the treated or untreated surface.
Experiments with ³⁵S-labelled phorate showed that anthocorids confined on phorate-treated bean plants, with or without insect food, accumulated the insecticide or its labelled derivatives. In field experiments in which A. nemorum were caged on plants treated with phorate, many were killed on young newly treated plants but not on older plants. A. confusus was relatively unaffected.
Anthocorids were reared from 2nd-instar nymphs to adults on aphids killed systemically with phorate, dimethoate or menazon without ill effects, despite evidence that ³⁵S-labelled phorate was ingested from the aphids and excreted in the faeces.
In the field, fewer large A. nemorum nymphs were found in August in plots of tick beans treated with phorate granules at 6 lb/acre (6.7 kg/ha) when sown, than in plots treated at 1.5 lb/acre (1.7 kg/ha) with phorate or menazon or untreated plots.     

The control of Aphis fabae Scop, on spring-sown field beans (Vicia faba L.)

Disulfoton or phorate granules or demeton-S-methyl, menazon and vamidothion sprays, applied once in early June as preventive treatments before heavy aphid colonies developed, gave good control of Aphis fabae Scop, on field beans. Phosalone gave relatively poor results and DDT was ineffective. Applications in June to crops sown in February and early March were made with minimal wheel damage to the crop and are known to be less harmful to bees than sprays at flowering time. Eradicant treatments with demeton-S-methyl and dimethoate sprays or with disulfoton or phorate granules on heavily infested plants during flowering were also effective, but menazon was less satisfactory. These eradicant sprays are likely to be harmful to bees, and wheel damage in late June reduced yield by 1–2 cwt/acre (125–250 kg/ha). Peak populations of 3000 aphids/plant in early July reduced yield by 6 cwt/acre (750 kg/ha) in one trial.     

Action of mephosfolan on anthocorid predators of Phorodon humuli

In glasshouse and field studies, soil drenches of the systemic insecticide mephosfolan were applied to hop plants to control the aphid Phorodon humuli, and to study the toxicity to anthocorid predators. The mortality of Anthocoris nemorum and A. nemoralis eggs in the leaf tissues increased with the dosage of mephosfolan while A. confusus eggs, which were laid in the petioles and veins, appeared to be unaffected at the dosages used, up to 2 g a.i./plant. Mortality of A. nemorum eggs, which were laid mainly in the leaf margins, was higher than in A. nemoralis eggs, which were laid mainly in the interveinal areas. For both species mortality was highest for the eggs laid in the leaf margins, and susceptibilities appeared similar. It is suggested that mephosfolan becomes unevenly distributed within the leaves, being most concentrated in the leaf margins and least concentrated in the veins and petioles. No species showed any preference when offered mephosfolan-treated and untreated leaves for oviposition, and the oviposition rates were unaffected by various mephosfolan dosages. Oviposition rates, larval mortality and duration of larval development were unaffected when specimens of each species were reared from eclosion to maturity on a diet of either mephosfolan-killed or heat-killed P. humuli.     

Oviposition preference of Anthocoris nemorum and A. nemoralis for apple and pear

Anthocoris nemorum L. and Anthocoris nemoralis Fabricius (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) are important predators of insect pests in pome fruit. Females insert their eggs in leaf tissue. The females’ choice of oviposition site is important for the subsequent distribution of nymphs on host plants. Oviposition preference for apple and pear leaves was tested in the laboratory in four experiments (experiments 1–4). In three experiments it was tested whether simulated insect damage to leaves (experiments 5 and 6) or the presence of prey (experiment 7) influenced oviposition preference. The effect of the presence of prey was only tested for A. nemorum on apple leaves. There was a highly significant anthocorid species × plant interaction for the number of eggs laid on apple and pear leaves. Anthocoris nemorum laid more eggs on apple than on pear leaves, while A. nemoralis preferred pear. Anthocoris nemorum's preference for apple increased over the 6‐week period in which experiments 1–4 were performed, from 66% to 91% eggs laid on apple leaves. No change over time in preference was found for A. nemoralis. Across experiments 1–4, the majority of A. nemorum eggs were laid near leaf margins, whereas eggs of A. nemoralis were more commonly found in the leaf centre, 5 mm or more from the margin, with a highly significant leaf region × species interaction. There was no significant difference in preference for leaf side between A. nemorum and A. nemoralis, but there was a highly significant plant × leaf side × experiment interaction. Thus, more eggs were laid on the ventral than on the dorsal side of pear leaves in experiment 4, while significantly more eggs were laid on the dorsal side of apple leaves in experiments 3 and 4. Choice tests between damaged and healthy leaves showed that A. nemorum laid significantly more eggs on the damaged leaves, while A. nemoralis preferred healthy leaves. Anthocoris nemorum showed a near‐significant preference for ovipositing on leaves with eggs of Operophtera brumata (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). The oviposition preferences found correspond to the natural distribution of these predators in apple and pear orchards. The preference of A. nemorum for leaf margins, and of A. nemoralis for the leaf centre as an oviposition site, supports earlier observations. A preference for leaf side for oviposition site has not been reported earlier. Preference for damaged leaves could help A. nemorum to locate prey in a field situation.     

Experiments on integration of chemical and biological control of aphids on brussels sprouts

Two field experiments were made to test whether natural enemies would take over control of brussels sprouts aphids at the time when protection from a selectively acting, soil-applied systemic insecticide, menazon, began to fail. The natural enemies, notably Syrphidae, proved ineffective against Brevicoryne brassicae L. despite advantages given by the insecticide and by close planting, which greatly increased the ratio of numbers of syrphid eggs and larvae to aphids. Thus, development of the aphid population was little altered when infested plants were kept free of most natural enemies by hand removal. I lb/acre (1–12 kg/ha) of menazon applied as spot treatments to the soil at planting-out time decreased the number of overwintering parasite mummies by 70 % but such ‘mortality’ was compensated for by decreased mortality from hyperparasites and other causes, so the numbers of adults of the primary parasite Diaretiella rapae (McIntosh) which emerged in the spring were similar to those from untreated plots. Soil cultivation in winter drastically decreased the numbers of emerging adult primary parasites, hyperparasites and syrphids. The menazon treatment designed for integrated control (1 lb/acre) seemed too unpredictable in action, e.g. less effective in dry than in damp conditions, to provide the hoped-for chemical control needed until natural enemies became abundant. Menazon at 4 lb/acre (4·48 kg/ha) protected the crop throughout the growing season and bioassays showed that menazon or its toxic derivatives continued to occur in leaves during cool periods in winter and also in the following April-May nearly 1 year after application. The same amount of menazon per unit area of crop was less effective on 1 ft 6 in (45·6 cm) spaced than on 3 ft (91·2 cm) spaced brussels sprouts plants.     

Influence of soil moisture on the performance of granular systemic insecticides applied to soil

Control of aphids by the four systemic insecticides, dimethoate, disulfoton, menazon and phorate, applied as granules below seed potatoes at planting, was investigated under different soil moisture conditions. Results confirmed previous conclusions that dimethoate and menazon are more effective in wet than in dry soils, whereas disulfoton and phorate are equally effective in both. However, even with dimethoate and menazon effects of moisture were small and were probably the result of several different interacting factors.     

The effectiveness of Anthocoris nemorum and A. Confusus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) as predators of the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum platanoides. II. Searching behaviour and the incidence of predation in the field

Laboratory observations on the searching behaviour and efficiency of the anthocorids Anthocoris confusus and A. nemorum in capturing the sycamore aphid led to the suggestion that the anthocorids would be unable to survive on sycamore trees unless the population density of young aphids on the leaves exceeded a certain value. This value is 14 and 5 small aphids per 10 dm² of leaf, for A. confusus and A. nemorum respectively.Analysis of observations on the incidence of predation by anthocorids on the sycamore aphid confirms that the number of anthocorid nymphs appearing on sycamore in the spring is related to the number of young aphids present. However, it is the numbers of parasitized aphids and adult aphids present in June and July that determine the proportion of the anthocorid nymphs that become adult. Despite their ability to avoid capture, adult aphids are so abundant in some years that this more than compensates for the anthocorids' inefficiency in capturing them.The proportion of the sycamore aphid population killed by the anthocorids in the field decreases as the sycamore aphid increases in abundance.

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Zuammenfassung Über das Suchverhalten und die Wirksamkeit der Anthocoriden Anthocoris confusus und A. nemorum bei der Erbeutung von Ahornblattläusen wurden Laborbeobachtungen durchgeführt. Kombination der Ergebnisse mit Befunden über die Nahrungsbedürfnisse der Anthocoriden (Russel, 1970) ermöglichten dann Schätzungen über die Populationsdichte der Blattläuse, die für die erfolgreiche Entwicklung der Anthocoriden erforderlich ist. Die benötigten Werte betragen für A. confusus 14 und für A. nemorum 5 kleine Blattläuse pro 10 dm² Blattfläche.Eine Analyse von Beobachtungen über das Auftreten der Erbeutung von Ahornläusen durch die Anthocoriden bestätigt, daß die Anzahl der im Frühjahr an Ahorn auftretenden Anthocoriden-Larven in Beziehung zur Anzahl der vorhandenen jungen Bláttläuse steht. Jedoch bestimmt die Anzahl der parasitierten sowie der erwachsenen Blattläuse, die im Juni und Juli vorhanden sind, den Anteil der Anthocoriden-Larven, der das Adultstadium erreicht. Trotz der Fähigkeit der Ahornläus, der Erbeutung zu entgehen, wird in manchen Jahren die schlechte Fähigkeit der Anthocoriden, sie zu erbeuten, durch die Häufigkeit der Blattläuse mehr als ausgeglichen.Das Verhältnis der von den Anthocoriden im Freiland getöteten Ahornläuse nimmt in dem Maße ab, wie die Häufigkeit der Ahornläuse zunimmt.

     

Laboratory and field tests in 1966-67 on chemical control of wireworms (Agriotes spp.)

Of sixteen compounds applied to soil in laboratory tests, azinphos-ethyl, P2188 (O,O-diethyl S-chloromethyl phosphorothiolothionate), ‘Dursban’ (O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl phosphorothioate), P1973 (S-(N-methoxycarbonyl-N-methylcarbamoylmethyl) dimethyl phosphorothiolothionate), B77488 (O,O-diethylphosphorothioate O-esterwith phenylglyoxylonitrile oxime) and R42211 (O,O-diethyl O-(2-diethylamino-6-methyl-pyrimidin-4-yl) phosphorothioate) killed wireworms when first tested, but in second tests with the same soils only ‘Dursban’, P2188 and B77488 did so. Treating seeds with ‘Dyfonate’ (O-ethyl S-phenyl ethyl phosphonodithioate) or with ethion/γ-BHC mixtures killed few wireworms. Three field trials compared the organophosphorus insecticides ‘Dursban’, ‘Dyfonate’ and phorate with organochlorine standards. In trials with barley and potatoes the standard was 3 lb a.i./acre (3·36 kg/ha) of aldrin. The organophosphorus compounds increased plant stands of barley almost as much as aldrin, although they killed fewer wireworms; and they protected fewer potato tubers from wireworm damage. The third trial compared the organophosphorus compounds with 0·5 lb a.i./acre (0·56 kg/ha) γ-BHC sprayed on a site drilled with sugar beet seed dressed with dieldrin. The γ-BHC increased plant stands almost as much as did 3 lb a.i./acre of the organophosphorus insecticides, and killed as many wireworms.     

The effectiveness of Anthocoris nemorum and A. confusus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) as predators of the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum platanoides 1 the number of aphids consumed during development

Nymphs of Anthocoris nemorum and Anthocoris confusus were reared in the laboratory, using the sycamore aphid Drepanosiphum platanoides as food. Most of the food required for development is consumed during the last three instars. Individuals which developed in the shortest time consumed least food during development, and weighed least at maturation. Comparison of the weights of field and laboratory reared animals indicates that they consume similar amounts of food during development, and the number of sycamore aphids required for development in the field is estimated. It is suggested that under natural conditions, the number of anthocorids which reach maturity is dependent upon the number of young aphids available during the early stages of the anthocorids' development.

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Zusammenfassung Anthocoris nemorum und Anthocoris confusus sind Raubinsekten, u.a. für die Blattlaus Drepanosiphum platanoides. Als Teil einer Untersuchung über die Wirkung dieser Pr?datoren auf die Populationen dieser Blattlaus, wurde in Laborexperimenten die Anzahl der w?hrend der Entwicklung verzehrten Blattl?use ermittelt. Die Larven wurden im Laboratorium mit Blattl?usen gefüttert, A. nemorum bei 24° und 14°, um die Einwirkung der Temperatur auf die Entwicklung zu untersuchen, und A. confusus nur bei 24°. Bei 24° entwickelte sich A. confusus schneller, verbrauchte weniger Nahrung und wog weniger als A. nemorum. Auch A. nemorum entwickelte sich bei 24° schneller, verbrauchte weniger, und wog bei der Reife weniger als Exemplare der Art, die bei 14° aufgewachsen waren. Die Umsatzrate der Blattl?use betrug für A. nemorum sowohl bei 24° wie bei 14° 0.18, und für A. confusus bei 24° 0.16. Ein Vergleich der Gewichte der Anthocoriden nach Aufzucht im Laboratorium bzw. im Freiland zeigt, da? diese Insekten im Freiland quantitativ eine ?hnliche Nahrungsaufnahme wie im Laboratorium haben. Unter Verwendung der gefundenen Umsatzraten werden überschlagsberechnungen über das für die Entwicklung der Anthocoriden bis zur Reife ben?tigte Blattlaus-Lebendgewicht aufgestellt. In der Natur werden nur kleine Blattl?use angegriffen; und das für A. nemorum erforderliche Gesamt-Lebendgewicht der Beute wird auf 99 Blattl?use des ersten oder 50 des zweiten Larvenstadiums gesch?tzt; und für A. confusus entsprechend 69, bzw. 35. Dixon (1963, 1966, 1969) hat gezeigt, da? die Anzahl der Ahorn-Blattl?use schon im Mai gro? ist, jedoch im Juni stark abnimmt, da die Erwachsenen dann in eine reproduktive Diapause eintreten. Es wird hier vermutet, da? die Anzahl von überlebenden Anthocoriden von der Anzahl der kleinen Blattl?use des frühesten Sommers abh?ngig ist. Die Beuteauswahl der Anthocoriden wird im Hinblick auf die Spezialisierung ihrer Nahrungsgewohnheiten besprochen.

     

Two Anthocoris bugs as predators of glasshouse aphids – voracity and prey preference

Voracity and prey preference were evaluated for adult females of the predatory bugs Anthocoris nemorum (L.) and Anthocoris nemoralis (Fabricius) (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) preying upon five species of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), of which Myzus persicae Sulzer, Aulacorthum solani (Kaltenbach), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas), and Aphis gossypii Glover are common pests in Danish glasshouse crops. Aphis fabae Scopoli was included to determine the influence of food quality on the preference of the predators, since A. fabae has proved to be of poor nutritional value to Anthocoris spp. The experiments were carried out over 24 h in climate cabinets at 20 °C, 60–70% r.h., L18:D6. The aphids were offered in equal amounts in combinations of two species in instars of comparable size. Myzus persicae served as a reference species in all combinations. Both predators accepted all five species of aphids as prey. The numbers of aphids killed per 24 h period varied between 3.7 and 18.0 for A. nemorum and between 3.6 and 12.7 for A. nemoralis. Field collected A. nemorum females, presumably in a state of reproductive diapause, killed in three of four prey combinations significantly more aphids than did ovipositing A. nemoralis females which originated from a commercial rearing. When A. nemorum females had terminated their reproductive diapause and commenced oviposition, voracity increased approximately threefold. When prey preferences were evaluated as a total number of killed prey, no difference in preference was found between the two Anthocoris species. Both predatory bugs preferred M. persicae to the other species, the most accepted alternative prey were A. gossypii, A. fabae, A. solani, and M. euphorbiae, in descending order. However, evaluating preference by number of aphids consumed, A. nemoralis showed a more pronounced preference for M. persicae, especially when combined with A. fabae. In nearly every case, A. nemoralis rejected A. fabae as a food item after killing the aphid. Thus, A. nemoralis exhibited a more specific food choice than A. nemorum. By killing and consuming different aphid species found in glasshouse crops – particularly M. persicae– both A. nemorum and A. nemoralis showed preliminary qualities as agents for the biological control of aphids.     

Interactions of crop density of field beans, abundance of Aphis fabae Scop., virus incidence and aphid control by chemicals

The number of Aphis fabae Scop. per plant and per acre developing on field beans (Vicia faba L.) was inversely related to seeding rate (i.e. plant density) except sometimes at very low rates; with equal numbers of plants per acre, fewer aphids developed on plants in rows 11 in. than 22 in. apart. Plots sown in mid-March with more than about 150,000 plants per acre were more attractive than less dense stands to colonizing alate A. fabae, but established colonies multiplied most on the sparsest and least on the densest plots. The number of plants per acre infected by pea leaf-roll virus was inversely related to planting density. There were more virus-infected plants on II in. than on 22 in. spaced rows-in contrast to the numbers of A. fabae. A single spray with demeton-methyl, timed to control A. fabae, did not significantly decrease virus incidence. Grain yields of sprayed plots were little altered by increasing the seed rate above a critical minimum, except in one year when the densest crops lodged. Increased yields from spraying were closely related to the numbers of A. fabae on unsprayed plots. Dense planting (more than 400,000 plants per acre) prevented or greatly decreased losses caused by A. fabae in unsprayed plots except in one year when the aphids were exceptionally abundant.     

Some factors influencing the occurrence and site of oviposition by aphidophagous Syrphidae (Diptera)

Syrphids were not deterred from ovipositing on suitable plants by the presence of other syrphid eggs, larvae or larval gut contents. Heavy infestations of Aphis fabae Scop, on bean plants (Viciafaba L.) induced Platycheirus manicatus (Meig.) to lay preferentially on neighbouring uninfested plants. Such behaviour was not found for Syrphus species. Nor did flowers, a source of adult food, stimulate oviposition nearby. The site of oviposition in relation to Brevicoryne brassicae L. on brussels sprouts (Brassicae oleracea gemnifera L.) varied markedly according to species: in similar conditions Syrphus luniger Meig. laid over 50% of its eggs touching aphids and less than 1% on uninfested plants, whereas P. manicatus laid less than 5% touching aphids and over 50% on uninfested plants. Most eggs were laid close to the edge of the leaf, especially by Platycheirus species, e.g. P. scutatus Meig. which laid over 90% within 5 mm of the edge of the leaf.     

Laboratory studies on the reproduction of Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae)

The pre-oviposition period, but not the longevity, of adult A. bipunctata was significantly shorter when they had been reared to the adult stage on Microlophium evansii and then fed on Acyrthosiphon pisum, than when fed in the adult stage on Aphis fabae. When adult beetles, reared as larvae on M. evansii, were fed on A. pisum they laid twice as many eggs as similarly reared adults fed on A. fabae. The species of aphid fed to the insects during their adult life (but not their larval life) greatly affected fecundity, and A. pisum is perhaps a more nutritious food for A. bipunctata than A. fabae is. Virgin females laid infertile eggs but only half as many as those laid by mated females.

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Laboratoriumsuntersuchungen über die vermehrung von Adalia Bipunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae)

Zusammenfassung Die Praeovipositionszeit, jedoch nicht die Lebensdauer, von erwachsenen A. bipunctata war signifikant kürzer, wenn sie nach Aufzucht mit Microlophium evansii im Adultstadium mit Acyrthosiphum pisum statt mit Aphis fabae gefüttert wurden. Wenn erwachsene Käfer, die als Larven mit M. evansii aufgezogen worden waren, mit A. pisum gefüttert wurden, legten sie doppelt so viele Eier als entsprechend aufgezogene, aber mit A. fabae gefütterte Imagines. Die Blattlausart, welche den Käfern während ihres Imaginallebens-aber nicht während der Larvalentwicklung-als Nahrung geboten wird, beeinflußt ihre Fruchtbarkeit stark; und A. pisum ist vielleicht ein nahrhafteres Futter für A. bipunctata als A. fabae. Unbegattete Weibchen legten unbefruchtete Eier, aber nur halb so viele als begattete.

     

Growth and fecundity of Anthocoris spp. reared on various prey (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae)

Rates of development and sizes of adults at 23±2° were determined for six species of Anthocoris reared on a series of host insects. Relative food value of the test prey varied between species of Anthocoris. For example, Psylla mali Schmid. was suitable for all species, but Aphis fabae (Scop.) was suitable for Anthocoris gallarum-ulmi (DeG.), poor for A. nemorum (L.), and unsuitable for A. confusus Reut., A. nemoralis (Fab.), A. sarothamni Douglas & Scott, and A. minki Dohrn. Growth rates of larvae of three species that are normally associated with psyllids were significantly greater when they were fed on psyllids than when fed on aphids. The host-plant specificity of Anthocoris spp. is not solely influenced by the food requirements of the larvae because all species can be successfully reared on unnatural prey. There is some suggestion that the food requirements of newlyemerged adults may be more critical than those of the larvae, as some prey allow continued reproduction while others may cause a reproductive diapause. Prey selection in nature is discussed in relation to the above results.

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Zusammenfassung Entwicklungsgeschwindigkeit und Grösse von sechs Anthocoris-Arten werden bei 23±2° in Abhängigkeit von verschiedenen Insektenarten als Beute ermittelt. Der relative Futterwert der Versuchsbeute ist für die einzelnen Anthocoris-Arten verschieden. So ist beispielsweise Psylla mali Schmid. für alle Arten geeignet, Aphis fabae (Scop.) dagegen zwar günstig für A. gallarum-ulmi (DeG.), aber schlecht für A. nemorum (L.) und ungeeignet für A. confusus Reut., A. nemoralis (Fab.), A. sarothamni Douglas & Scott und A. minki Dohrn. Die Wachstumsraten der Larven von drei Arten, die normalerweise mit Psylliden zusammen gefunden werden, sind signifikant grösser, wenn sie mit diesen statt mit Blattläusen gefüttert werden. Die Wirtspflanzenspezifität von Anthocoris-Arten wird nicht allein durch Nahrungsansprüche der Larven beeinflusst; alle Arten können mit nicht dem natürlichen Wirtsbereich angehörender Beute erfolgreich aufgezogen werden. Es besteht Grund zu der Annahme, dass die frischgehäuteten Erwachsenen bei der Nahrungswahl kritischer sind als die Larven, denn manche Beute gestattet ununterbrochene Fortpflanzung, während andere eine reproduktive Diapause verursachen kann. Die in der Natur herrschende Beuteauswahl wird im Hinblick auf die obigen Ergebnisse besprochen.

     

The secretion of the systemic insecticides dimethoate and phorate into nectar

In pot experiments, root applications of dimethoate and phorate were made to plants of fuchsia, nasturtium and bean. Twenty-five mg dimethoate applied to a 5-in pot made nectar from fuchsia and nasturtium and nectaries of beans toxic to bees and Drosophila melanogaster. Similar amounts of phorate and disulfoton did not cause toxicity. Gas chromatography showed that 4 days after treatment there was at least 100 times more dimethoate than phorate in the nectar of fuchsia and nasturtium. The dimethoate in nectaries taken from bean plants treated at rates between 0·5 and 50 mg dimethoate per pot was assayed by gas chromatography. The concentration of dimethoate in the nectaries depended on the applied dose: it was greatest 4 days after treatment. Loss was more rapid with larger doses than with smaller doses.     

Fluctuations in populations of wheat bulb fly (Leptohylemyia coarctata) at Rothamsted

Several field experiments at Rothamsted have rotations including plots fallowed before sowing to winter wheat each year, which provide ideal conditions for maintaining infestations of wheat bulb fly (Leptohylemyia coarctata). In eight consecutive years of one experiment, a mean of 13% of the eggs laid on fallows in these rotations eventually survived to become adults. There was a considerable variation between years, ranging from a maximum survival of 28 % to a minimum of 7%. Most deaths occur in the larval stage, and although previous work showed that survival of the larvae increases with the number of shoots available for infestation, much of the variability in survival rates between seasons was apparently caused by other factors, possibly climatic. Eggs laid in fallows were sampled in most years from 1953 to 1972. They varied from 3.57 to 0.02 million/acre (8.81–0.05 million/ha), depending on the season and site; the mean was 1.08 million/acre (2.67 million/ha). Egg populations varied in synchrony at all the three sites studied; there were cycles lasting several years between peaks of abundance or scarcity but there was no consistent tendency for populations to increase or decrease. Fewest eggs were laid when the weather was cold and wet during July and August, i.e. when adults are active. Weather was more closely correlated with the number of eggs laid expressed as a fraction of those laid in the previous year (net reproductive rate) than with the number of eggs laid/acre.     

Diamondback moth egg susceptibility to rainfall: effects of host plant and oviposition behavior

Oviposition patterns of the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), differ between common cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. var. pekinensis) (Brassicaceae) host plants. This study shows that the moth prefers to oviposit on adaxial rather than abaxial leaf surfaces and petioles of both host plants. More eggs were laid in leaf veins than on leaf laminas of both host plants, especially in Chinese cabbage, where 94.6% of eggs were laid in veins. On Chinese cabbage, very few eggs were laid in clusters (≥2 eggs), whereas on common cabbage approximately 30% of eggs were laid in groups of 2 or more eggs. Removal of wax from common cabbage leaves dramatically increased the number of eggs laid singly on the leaf lamina of treated plants, suggesting that leaf waxes affect how eggs are distributed by ovipositing DBM. Eggs were most susceptible to removal by rainfall from the plant surface immediately (<1 h) after oviposition and when close to hatching (>72h old) whereas they were least susceptible 24 h after oviposition. Eggs laid on common cabbage plants were more susceptible to simulated rainfall than eggs laid on Chinese cabbage plants. On common cabbage plants, egg susceptibility to rainfall on different plant parts ranked adaxial leaf surfaces>petioles = abaxial leaf surfaces>stem, but there was no difference in egg susceptibility to rainfall on the various plant parts of Chinese cabbage. Furthermore, on common cabbage plants, eggs laid on both adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces were afforded significant protection from the effects of rainfall by leaves higher in the plant canopy. On common cabbage plants, oviposition patterns reduce the potential impact of rainfall on eggs, possibly reducing the effect of this important abiotic mortality factor in the field.     

Intra-specific mechanisms in relation to the natural regulation of numbers of Aphis fabae Scop

Parthenogenetic virginoparous apterae of Aphis fabae Scop. on field beans (Vicia faba) reproduced faster initially in populations of eight colonizing apterae than in those with 2–4 or 16–32 per plant. The aphids were at first mutually benefited but were quickly affected by competition as numbers rose above the critical density represented by about eight apterae and their first progeny. This is because the aphids remained densely aggregated and seemingly created a local shortage despite abundant food and space elsewhere on the plant. Such self-induced competition provides the basis for self-regulation of numbers of A. fabae in relation to (1) food and space provided by the growing plant and (2) mortality from natural enemies and from other causes including insecticides. As competition increased, the multiplication of A. fabae populations slowed, newly formed adult apterae emigrated and increasing numbers of alatae were formed. The mean weights of apterae decreased from about 1·8 mg. to 0·3 mg. and of alatae from 0·9 to 0·2 mg. Such decrease probably favours production of many adults that might otherwise fail to mature. Experiments in a glasshouse and in field cages indicated the success with which an A. fabae population adapts to and exploits a growing plant. Field bean plants sown in mid-March and infested as in the field produced an average of 15,000–17,000 A. fabae emigrants per plant of which 78–84% were adults (mostly alatae). This is equivalent to about 1600 million alate emigrants from 1 acre (0·4 hectare) of an infested field bean crop.     

Limiting the potential for intraspecific competition: regulation of Trioza eugeniae oviposition on unexpanded leaf tissue

1. Trioza eugeniae (Homoptera: Triozidae) females oviposit pre‐ ferentially on the margin of young, incompletely expanded Syzygium paniculatum leaves. As the density of eggs on the leaf increases, females will oviposit on the surface of the leaf blades. 2. The survivorship of eggs laid on the abaxial leaf midrib and near the abaxial leaf margin was significantly greater than that of eggs laid on the leaf margin. 3. Controlled environment studies demonstrated that maximum carrying capacity for T. eugeniae nymphs on a fully expanded leaf is approximated closely by the number of eggs that can be laid on the margin of a young, unexpanded leaf. 4. In field populations, nymphal densities fell below the hypothetical carrying capacity calculated from laboratory studies on 71% of the leaves examined. 5. The leaf margin appears to be a proximal cue used by ovipositing females for resources available to developing nymphs. Females that limit oviposition to available leaf margins appear to improve the probability of survival of their progeny through reduced intraspecific competition.