“Pig in a poke (gato por liebre)”: The “mota” (Calophysus macropterus) Fishery,Molecular Evidence of Commercialization in Colombia and Toxicological Analyses

Overfishing has affected the population abundance trends of many commercial fish species. In the Amazon, the fishery of a catfish commonly known as “mota” or “piracatinga” (Calophysus macropterus) has become an important economic activity in the region as this species has replaced a number of other overexploited great catfish species in the markets. Due to this high exploitation, ways in which to increase captures have been identified. One strategy is to use decomposing animal carcasses as bait. Such strategy has increased the hunting pressure on endangered species such as caimans and river dolphins. We investigated which catfish species are currently commercialized in Colombian fish markets using DNA barcoding, and measured mercury concentration in the tissues of fish molecularly identified as C. macropterus. We collected 86 fish samples in markets of four Colombian cities. Sixty-eight of these were identified molecularly as C.macropterus. The mercury concentration of 29 such samples was analyzed. Samples presented total Hg concentrations higher than the limit for human consumption established by the WHO (0.5 μg/g). These results are worrisome and suggest that (1) C. macropterus is a widely used fish species for human consumption in Colombia and (2) C. macropterus has high concentrations of total Hg, making its consumption a public health risk. Results presented here suggest that C. macropterus has replaced capaz in most Colombian markets. This fishery threatens wild species of river dolphins and caimans, and is also a public health risk given the high mercury levels we found in a subsample of these fishes.     

Effects of complexing agents on the distribution of Hg(II) species provided by food to starfish Leptasterias polaris

Abstract

Mature starfish Leptasterias polaris were exposed to labelled mercury (II) species via food contaminated at a level of 5.0 μg g^?1. The distribution of inorganic Hg and methylmercury (MeHg) in starfish organs and tissues and the effect of a series of complexing agents on mercury translocation between organs and tissues were examined over a 24-h period. The distribution of mercury species in coelomic fluid components, ammonia excretion rate and mercury excretion were also measured. The highest concentrations were observed in the stomach (the source organ) and in pyloric caecum (up to 0.32 μg g^?1 wet weight for inorganic Hg and 0.22 μg g^?1 for MeHg). Concentrations of MeHg in gonads ranged from ≤ 0.01 to 0.08 μg g^?1 whereas concentrations of inorganic Hg never exceeded 0.06 μg g^?1. In all studied cases, mercury concentration was very low the coelomic fluid (≤ 0.01 μg g^?1). The short-term distribution of Hg species via contaminated food in starfish L. polaris seems to be controlled by the haemal system, a primitive circulatory system responsible for the transport of soluble nutrients from the digestive track towards organs and tissues, but a possible role of the coelomic fluid can not be excluded. Very low Hg contents were observed in gonads and in the coelomic fluid which fills the general cavity. Except for mercaptoethanol (merOH) and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA), the addition of complexing agents to the food had little effect on the distribution of Hg species. MerOH appeared as an efficient carrier for methylmercury transport through the digestive system. DMSA enhanced the translocation of inorganic mercury from stomach and pyloric caecum toward external tissues and markedly increased its excretion.     

Campylocentrum benellii and C. paludosum spp. nov. (Angraecinae–Orchidaceae): two new leafless species from Brazil

The leafless condition is present in two neotropical epiphyte genera of Orchidaceae, Campylocentrum and Dendrophylax. Only the first one is reported from Brazil, where seven leafless species are recorded, and four of them are endemic. This study describes two new species of Campylocentrum from the Atlantic forest of São Paulo state and Amazon forest of Acre, Mato Grosso and Rondônia states. It also provides a key to the Brazilian species of leafless Campylocentrum, illustrations, and a discussion of the affinities of the new species with allied ones.     

A new species of Bricelochlorops Paganelli and the first record of Urubambina rufa (Duda) (Diptera: Chloropidae) from Brazil

The subfamily Chloropinae comprises about 442 described species, with only one species recorded from the Brazilian Amazon. The genus Bricelochlorops Paganelli was represented by a unique species from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The species Urubambina rufa (Duda) is the only species of the genus Urubambina Paganelli and has been recorded only from Peru. A new species of Bricelochlorops, B. celutae sp. nov., is described here and Urubambina rufa is recorded for the first time in Brazil. Both species were collected in the state of Acre. A key to species of Bricelochlorops is provided.     

Genetic Diversity and Natural Population Structure of Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) from the Brazilian Amazon Evaluated by Microsatellite Markers

A sample of 94 accessions of Theobroma cacao L. (cacao), representing four populations from the Brazilian Amazon (Acre, Rondônia, lower Amazon and upper Amazon) were analyzed using microsatellite markers to assess the genetic diversity and the natural population structure. From the 19 microsatellite loci tested, 11 amplified scorable products, revealing a total of 49 alleles, including two monomorphic loci. The Brazilian upper Amazon population contained the largest genetic diversity, with the most polymorphic loci, the highest observed heterozygosity; and the majority of rare alleles, thereby this region might be considered part of the center of diversity of the species. The observed heterozygosity for all the Brazilian populations (H _o = 0.347) was comparable with values reported for other similar upper Amazon Forastero cacao populations, with the Acre and Rondônia displaying the lowest values. The lower Amazon population, traditionally defined as highly homozygous, presented an unexpectedly high observed heterozygosity (H _o = 0.372), disclosing rare and distinct alleles, with large identity with the upper Amazon population. It was hypothesized that part of the lower Amazon population might derive from successive natural or intentional introduction of planting material from other provenances, mainly upper Amazon. Most of the loci exhibited a lower observed heterozygosity than expected, suggesting that self-pollination might be more common than usually assumed in cacao, but excess of homozygotes might also derive from sub-grouping (Wahlund effect) or from sampling related individuals. Most of the gene diversity was found to occur within groups, with small differentiation between the four Brazilian Amazon populations, typical of species with high gene flow.     

The Amazon River system as an ecological barrier driving genetic differentiation of the pink dolphin (Inia geoffrensis)

The pink dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) is widely distributed along the Amazon and Orinoco basins, covering an area of approximately 7 million km². Previous morphological and genetic studies have proposed the existence of at least two evolutionary significant units: one distributed across the Orinoco and Amazon basins and another confined to the Bolivian Amazon. The presence of barriers in the riverine environment has been suggested to play a significant role in shaping present‐day patterns of ecological and genetic structure for this species. In the present study, we examined the phylogeographic structure, lineage divergence time and historical demography using mitochondrial (mt)DNA sequences in different pink dolphin populations distributed in large and small spatial scales, including two neighbouring Brazilian Amazon populations. mtDNA control region (CR) analysis revealed that the Brazilian haplotypes occupy an intermediate position compared to three previously studied geographic locations: the Colombian Amazon, the Colombian Orinoco, and the Bolivian Amazon. On a local scale, we have identified a pattern of maternal isolation between two neighbouring populations from Brazil. Six mtDNA CR haplotypes were identified in Brazil with no sharing between the two populations, as well as specific cytochrome b (cyt b) haplotypes identified in each locality. In addition, we analyzed autosomal microsatellites to investigate male‐mediated gene flow and demographic changes within the study area in Brazil. Data analysis of 14 microsatellite loci failed to detect significant population subdivision, suggesting that male‐mediated gene flow may maintain homogeneity between these two locations. Moreover, both mtDNA and microsatellite data indicate a major demographic collapse within Brazil in the late Pleistocene. Bayesian skyline plots (BSP) of mtDNA data revealed a stable population for Colombian and Brazilian Amazon lineages through time, whereas a population decline was demonstrated in the Colombian Orinoco lineage. Moreover, BSP and Tajima's D and Fu's F_s tests revealed a recent population expansion exclusively in the Bolivian sample. Finally, we estimated that the diversification of the Inia sp. lineage began in the Late Pliocene (approximately 3.1 Mya) and continued throughout the Pleistocene. Published 2011. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 102 , 812–827.     

Seasonal movements of river dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) in a protected Amazonian floodplain

Deliberate killing for use as bait in a regional catfish (Calophysus macropterus) fishery is the primary threat affecting the survival of the Amazon river dolphin, or boto (Inia geoffrensis). Establishing and improving freshwater protected areas has been suggested as a possible course of action to protect the species. However, the ecology of the boto is poorly understood and more information is needed on the species’ habitat use and movement patterns to ensure that spatial protection initiatives meet conservation needs. In this study, mark‐recapture/resight data collected in and near the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, a várzea in the Brazilian Amazon, was used to examine transition probabilities of botos between various habitat types. Our findings suggest that it is imperative that spatial protection initiatives focused on the boto take into account the importance of várzea habitat and bay systems for individuals in early life stages. Moreover, because botos frequently occupy the main rivers, particularly during the low water period, protecting areas of the main river waters adjacent to várzeas could aid in the protection of hunted populations.     

Hybrid speciation and radiation in the neotropical woody genusTocoyena (Rubiaceae)

The variation pattern of a large population ofTocoyena formosa in Botucatu, state of São Paulo, Brazil, and of other samples throughout the species area was analysed by morphometrical, statistical, ecological, and phytogeographical methods. Excessive variation and the remarkable coherence of two different character syndromes within this species strongly suggest that it has originated as a homogamic (diploid) hybrid complex. Possible parental species areT. brasiliensis, mainly from the Amazon region, andT. viscidula from the dry caatinga region of NE. Brazil.T. formosa has a much more extensive geographical range and greater ecological plasticity, ranging from the Amazon basin and the Guyanas throughout the Central Brazilian Plateau and from NE. to S. Brazil and Paraguay. Three (partly sympatric) varieties are distinguished withinT. formosa, i.e. var.formosa, var.pseudobrasiliensis (var. nov.), and var.microdon (comb. et stat. nov.). A provisional taxonomic revision, key, and conspectus covers the 12 accepted species ofTocoyena with blunt flower buds and ovate obtuse corolla lobes (group A, includingT. formosa); their distribution is shown in a map.     

An Investigation of Total Mercury in Sediments and Interstitial Water in the North Fork Holston River below Saltville,Virginia, USA

The North Fork Holston River (NFHR) is historically renowned for having one of the most diversity rich unionid populations (Unionidae) worldwide; however, in recent decades, drastic reductions in mussel diversity, abundance, and recruitment have been documented. Unionid declines have been blamed on anthropogenic influences, specifically mercury-contaminated wastewater from a now closed chlorine-alkali plant in Saltville, VA. The objective of this research was to evaluate total mercury (Hg) contamination of sediments and interstitial waters in the NFHR beginning below Saltville and downstream for approximately 50 river miles. Mercury contaminated sediments and interstitial water were found downstream of the closed plant with the highest sediment concentration of 2.82 mg/kg dry weight total Hg found at river mile (rm) 80 and the highest interstitial water value at rm 30.4 with 2.1 μg/l. After 60-d in situ testing, total Hg concentrations in Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea) tissues were found to range from 0.016 to 0.13 mg/kg, while resident clams had Hg concentrations of 0.094 and 0.11 mg/kg wet weight. Although chronic toxicity was not observed, based on Corbicula growth and survival tests, nor in testing with cladocerans, mercury contamination is still a persistent problem at sites in the NFHR below the closed plant with negative correlations between mean clam growth and sediment Hg concentrations.     

First record of Anastrepha bahiensis Lima (Diptera: Tephritidae) infesting fruits of Averrhoa carambola L. in the eastern Amazon,Brazil

We report for the first time field infestation under natural conditions by Anastrepha bahiensis on star fruit (Averrhoa carambola L., Oxalidaceae) in the state of Pará, Eastern Amazon, Brazil. This report reinforces the importance of field infestation studies on fruit flies in the Brazilian Amazon.     

Use of dolphins and caimans as bait for Calophysus macropterus (Lichtenstein, 1819) (Siluriforme: Pimelodidae) in the Amazon

A new fishery has been developing in the Amazon that uses dolphin and caiman species as bait to catch piracatinga (Calophysus macropterus), having thus the potential to cause adverse food‐web impacts; however a lack of basic understanding of this fishery is a limitation to the necessary management action. Interviews with fishers and analyses of fishing records in Brazil were used for the study, including harvest methods, types of baits used, commercialization chains, and the rate of increase of piracatinga yields in recent years. Piracatinga fishers are subsistence fishers who harvest piracatinga as a means to alleviate economic constraints when the catch of other species is not profitable or banned due to (reproductive) closed seasons. Harvesting is done with wooden and nylon crates and cages in which whole or pieces of caimans and dolphins are placed to attract the piracatinga, entrapping them. The piracatinga are then sold to intermediate sellers for resale to a few large fish freezing and processing plants for export to Colombia. Annual piracatinga yields in the study area increased at an average rate of 446.5% per year, from 865 kg in 2003 to 23 176 kg in 2009. Because dolphins and caimans comprise various endangered species, the Brazilian government has recently implemented a ban on this fishery, which can be enforced at fish freezing and processing plants. However, there is a danger that such enforcement will lead to the development of a geographically dispersed chain of commercialization and export, such as currently exists for other species including caimans, which would be impossible to control.     

Molecular characterization,relatedness of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Haematobia irritans</Emphasis> (horn fly) populations,by RAPD-PCR

Haematobia irritans is a hematophagous parasite of cattle that causes significant economic losses in many parts of the world, including Brazil. In the present work, one American, four Brazilian populations of this species were studied by Random Amplified Polymorpht DNA (RAPD) to assess basically genetic variability within and between populations. Ten different decamer random primers were employed in the genomic DNA amplification, yielding 117 fragments in the five H. irritans populations. In Drosophila prosaltans, used as an outgroup, 81 fragments were produced. Forty-three of these fragments were shared by both species. Among the H. irritans samples, that from Rio Branco (Acre State, Brazil) produced the smallest numbers of fragments, polymorphic bands. This high genetic homogenity may be ascribed to its geographic origin (in the Northwest of Brazil), which causes high isolation, low gene flow, unlike the other Brazilian populations, from the South Central region, in which cattle trade is very intensive. Marker fragments (exclusive bands) detected in every sample enabled the population origin to be characterized, but they are also potentially useful for further approaches such as the putative origin of Brazilian populations from North America. Similarity indices [Nei & Li, 1979, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76: 5269–5273], phylogenetic trees, rooted by using the outgroup, produced by the Phylogenetic Analysis using Parsimony (PAUP 4.0-Swofford, 2001) program showed the closest relationships between flies from São José do Rio Preto, Turiúba (both from São Paulo State, Brazil) while flies from the geographically distant Rio Branco showed the greatest differentiation relative to the others.     

Study of the Spatial Distribution of Mercury in Roots of Vetiver Grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) by Micro-Pixe Spectrometry

Localization of Hg in root tissues of vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) was investigated by micro-Proton Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) spectrometry to gain a better understanding of Hg uptake and its translocation to the aerial plant parts. Tillers of C. zizanioides were grown in a hydroponic culture for 3 weeks under controlled conditions and then exposed to Hg for 10 days with or without the addition of the chelators (NH₄)₂S₂O₃ or KI. These treatments were used to study the effects of these chelators on localization of Hg in the root tissues to allow better understanding of Hg uptake during its assisted-phytoextraction. Qualitative elemental micro-PIXE analysis revealed that Hg was mainly localized in the root epidermis and exodermis, tissues containing suberin in all Hg treatments. Hg at trace levels was localized in the vascular bundle when plants were treated with a mercury solution only. However, higher Hg concentrations were found when the solution also contained (NH₄)₂S₂O₃ or KI. This finding is consistent with the observed increase in Hg translocation to the aerial parts of the plants in the case of chemically induced Hg phytoextraction.     

Assessment of Total and Organic Mercury Levels in Blue Sharks (Prionace glauca) from the South and Southeastern Brazilian Coast

Mercury occurrence was evaluated in samples of edible muscle tissue of 27 blue sharks (Prionace glauca) caught in the Atlantic Ocean, adjacent to the south and southeastern Brazilian coast, indicating a slight increase in comparison with previous data obtained for the same studied area and being higher than those fish caught at different sites of the Atlantic Ocean. Total Hg concentrations ranged from 0.46 to 2.40 mg kg^?1 with the organic Hg fraction ranging between 0.44 and 2.37 mg kg^?1. A negative correlation between total Hg concentration in muscle tissue and blue shark size was obtained, and 40 % of samples analyzed had Hg concentrations higher than 1.0 mg kg^?1 Hg, the maximum concentration permitted in Brazilian predator fish. Data obtained showed that total Hg can be used as a reliable predictor of organic Hg in blue shark muscle because 95 to 98 % of the total Hg measured was found to be organic mercury. The wide range of Hg concentrations obtained for our set of samples can be explained by the heterogeneity of sampled population and the large size of the studied area. Given the adverse toxicological effects of Hg on animals and humans, a regular monitoring program of Hg contamination in Brazilian marine ecosystem can be recommended.     

Selenium and mercury concentrations in some fish species of the Madeira River, Amazon Basin, Brazil

Samples of 7 species of piscivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous fish caught at 12 different sites on the Madeira River, Amazon Basin, were analyzed for selenium and mercury. Selenium was determined by anodic stripping voltammetry and mercury by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The means for selenium concentrations ranged from 0.49 to 3.11 nmol/g and for mercury from 0.41 to 6.66 nmol/g depending on the fish species. The molar ratios of Hg:Se increased according to the fish trophic level. Piscivorous species had the highest mean ratio (4.0) and herbivorous species the lowest (0.9). There was a positive and statistically significant correlation between selenium and mercury concentrations for the herbivorous species (r = 0.716;p = 0.0088) not seen for omnivororus and piscivorous species (r = -0.2032;p = 0.3407). These findings are significant for the fish-eating population of the Madeira River because the ingestion of mercury would always be in excess of selenium.     

Koellensteinia dasilvae sp. nov. (Zygopetalinae–Orchidaceae) from the Brazilian Amazon

A new species of Koellensteinia from the Brazilian Amazon is described and illustrated. Koellensteinia dasilvae C. F. Hall & F. Barros (Orchidaceae) grows as epiphyte or saxicolous, close to streams in upland forests (terra firme) of the state of Amapá, northern Brazil. The new species resembles K. hyacinthoides, sharing morphological affinities with this species, but differs by growing inside forests, smaller plant size, smaller leaves and petiole, larger inflorescence with large peduncle and small rachis, labellum, when spread, broader between the lateral lobes than at the mid‐lobe, margin of labellum minutely erose, and by short wings of the column.     

A new family of Gonyleptoidea from South America (Opiliones,Laniatores)

A new family of Laniatores, Gerdesiidae fam. nov., is proposed based on molecular and morphological evidence. Data also indicate that this new family is the sister family of Tricommatidae. Gerdesiidae fam. nov. has a disjunct distribution, occurring in northern South America (Peru, Brazilian Amazon) and at a spot in south‐eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais State). The new family is composed of two genera: Gerdesius Roewer, 1952 (type genus) and G onycranaus gen. nov. (type species G onycranaus androgynus sp. nov. ). We propose the synonymy of Huralvioides H. Soares, 1970 with Gerdesius Roewer, 1952 based on molecular and morphological evidence. Three new species are described: G erdesius mapinguari sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Amazonas, Manaus, Reserva Km 41); G onycranaus androgynus sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais, Conceição do Mato Dentro); and an obligate cave‐dwelling species, G onycranaus pluto sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais, Morro do Pilar). © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

24-hour Pattern in Lag Time of Response by Firemen to Calls for Urgent Medical Aid

The aim of the study was to assess the group 24-h pattern of lag time (LT) in response by regular and volunteer firemen (RFM and VFM) to calls for medical help (CFMH), specifically calls for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). LT, duration in min between a CFMH and departure of service vehicle equipped with a semiautomated defibrillator and generally staffed with four well-trained and ready-to-go FM, represents the integrated duration of several processes, each with separate reaction and decision-making times. The exact time of each CFHM (in min, h, day, month, yr) was recorded electronically, and the exact departure time from the station of the responding FM vehicle was recorded by an on-duty FM. Overall, CFMH made up 53?±?9% (SEM) of all emergencies calls for aid. To standardize the study methods, the reported findings are based on 568 CFMH specifically regarding OHCA that occurred during the 4-yr study span (January 2005 to December 2008). CFMH exhibited a 24-h pattern with a major peak at 10:00?h (mean?±?SEM: n?=?9.5?±?1.6) and major trough at 01:00?h (n?=?1.3?±?0.3; t test, p?<?.001). From year to year and season to season, a 24-h pattern was detected in the total of CFMH/h with two peaks (～10:00 and ～17:00h) and two troughs (～01:00 and ～15:00?h) (analysis of variance [ANOVA], p?<?.01; Cosinor, p?<?.05 to?<?.003), with neither season- nor year-related differences (χ², p?>?.05). In CFMH/h pooled time series, ANOVA-detected differences between the hourly means (p?<?.01), and Cosinor analysis validated a 24-h rhythm (p?<?.002). In raw data, the longest LT, indicative of poorest performance, occurred at 05:00?h (8.8?±?0.7?min) and the trough of LT, indicative of best performance, at 16:00?h (4.3?±?0.8?min (t test, p?<?.02). 24-h patterning in LT was validated both by ANOVA of hourly means (p?<?.0006) and Cosinor analysis (p?<?.05), with longest LT ～05:00?h and shortest LT ～16.00?h for data of the individual yearly time-series data. The 24-h LT rhythm was also validated in the pooled time series by Cosinor (p?<?.0001), with the 24-h mean?±?SEM?=?6?±?0.17?min and acrophase (peak) of 03:00?h?±?88?min (SD). Curve patterns of CFMH/h and LT/h differed widely. As a group phenomenon, the LT 24-h rhythm mimics the 24-h pattern of performance, as demonstrated by many laboratory and field investigations. The stability of the LT rhythm between years and seasons and its weak relationship with the CFMH 24-h pattern favors the hypothesis of an endogenous component or origin. The nighttime trough of performance is presumably linked to the elevated risk of work accidents in the same population of FM.