Picosecond fluorescence kinetics and energy transfer in chloroplasts and algae

Single-photon timing with picosecond resolution is used to investigate the kinetics of the fluorescence emission of chlorophyll a in chloroplasts from spinach and pea and in the algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Chlamydomonas reinhardii. The fluorescence decay is best described by three exponential components in all species. At low light intensity and with open reaction centers of Photosystem II (F₀), we find lifetimes of approx. 100, 400 and 1100 ps for the three components. Closing the reaction centers by addition of 3-(3′,4′-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea plus hydroxylamine and by increasing light intensity produces only minor changes in the almost constant fast- and medium-lifetime components; however, there is a dramatic increase in the yield of the slow component, by a factor of about 20, accompanied by only a modest increase in the lifetime to 2200 ps (F_max). In good agreement with previous fluorescence lifetime measurements, we find an increase in the averaged lifetime of the three components from 0.5 to 2.0 ns, which is proportional to the 4-fold increase in the total fluorescence yield. Our time-resolved results are inconsistent with models which are based on the proportionality between lifetime and yield and which involve a homogeneous origin of fluorescence that is sensitive to the state of the reaction centers. We conclude that the variable part of the fluorescence, which is dominated by the slow phase, reflects the kinetics of charge recombination in the reaction center, as proposed previously (Klimov, V.V., Allakhverdiev, S.I. and Paschenko, V.Z. (1978) Dokl. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. 242, 1204–1207). The modest increase in lifetime of the slow phase indicates the presence of some energy transfer between photosynthetic units.     

Native and in vitro-associated phycobilisomes of Nostoc sp. Composition,energy transfer,and effect of antibodies

The relationship of the structure and function of the light-harvesting antennae in the blue-green alga Nostoc sp. was further elucidated by reconstitution experiments. Separated phycoerythrin-phycocyanin complexes and allophycocyanin fractions were reassociated as described earlier (Canaani, O., Lipschultz, C.A. and Gantt, E. (1980) FEBS Lett. 115, 225–229) into functional phycobilisomes with a 70% yield. Native and reassociated physobilisomes had molar ratios of about 1.4:1.1:1.0 of phycoerythrin:phycocyanin:allophycocyanim. Energy transfer was demonstrated by their fluorescence emission maximum at approx. 675 nm (20°C), and their excitation spectra (emission wavelength 680 nm) which reflected the contribution of the three constitutive phycobiliproteins. Scans of Coomassie blue-stained SDS-polyacrylamide gels showed that the polypeptide composition of native and reassociated phycobilisomes was virtually indistinguishable. Reassociation of phycobilisomes was dependent on the interaction of allophycocyanin and phycocyanin, because it could be blocked with antisera to phycocyanin and allophycocyanin, but not to phycoerythrin. In addition, reassociation did not occur when a 31 000 Da polypeptide, which is part of the phycoerythrin-phycocyanin complex, was reduced in size (by 4000 Da). These results suggest that at least two domains are required for functional reassociation of phycobilisomes involving phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.     

Studies on chromophore coupling in isolated phycobiliproteins: III. Picosecond excited state kinetics and time-resolved fluorescence spectra of different allophycocyanins from Mastigocladus laminosus

The excited state kinetics of three different allophycocyanin (AP) complexes has been studied by picosecond fluorescence spectroscopy. Both the fluorescence kinetics and the decay-associated fluorescence spectra of the different complexes can be understood on the basis of a structural model for AP which uses (a) an analogy to the known x-ray determined structure of C-phycocyanin, (b) the biochemical analogies of AP and C-phycocyanin, and (c) the biochemical composition of AP-B (AP-681). A model is developed that describes the excited state kinetics as a mixture of internal conversion processes within a coupled exciton pair and energy transfer processes between exciton pairs. We found excited state relaxation times in the range of 13 ps (AP with linker peptide) up to 66 ps (AP-B). The trimeric aggregates AP 660 and AP 665 show one fast relaxation component each, as was expected on the basis of their symmetry properties. The lower symmetry of AP-B (AP-681) gives rise to two fast lifetime components (τ₁ = 23 ps and τ₂ = 66 ps) which are attributed to internal conversion and/or energy transfer between excitonic states formed by the coupling of symmetrically and spectrally nonequivalent chromophores. It is proposed that the internal conversion between exciton states of strongly coupled chromophores fulfills the requirements of the small energy gap limit. Thus, internal conversion rates in the order of tens of picoseconds are feasible. The influence of the interaction of the linker peptide on the properties of the AP trimer are manifested in the fluorescence kinetics. Lack of the linker peptide in AP 660 gives rise to a heterogeneity in the chromophore conformations and chromophore-chromophore interactions.     

Fluorescence decay kinetics in phycobilisomes isolated from the bluegreen alga Synechococcus 6301

The picosecond fluorescence and energy-transfer kinetics of isolated phycobilisomes from Synechococcus 6301 were studied under low intensity excitation. Different combinations of excitation and emission wavelengths were used in order to monitor selectively the fluorescence of the pigments phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. The relatively long overall energy-transfer time of 120 ps from the phycocyanin rods to the allophycocyanin-core is rationalized in terms of the special structure of the rods being built up of several phycocyanin hexamers in this alga species. The fluorescence lifetime of the terminal chromophores in the core was determined to be 1.8–1.9 ns depending on the excitation wavelength. A fast decay component of 20 ± 10 ps which is most prominent at short emission wavelengths is assigned to arise mainly from energy transfer within the C-phycocyanin-units from ‘sensitizing’ to ‘fluorescing’ chromophores.     

Polarized absorption picosecond kinetics as a probe of energy transfer in phycobilisomes of Synechococcus 6301

The energy transfer between C-phycocyanin chromophores in intact phycobilisomes of Synechococcus 6301 is shown to lead to an anisotropy relaxation with a lifetime of 10 ± 2 ps. However, due to the molecular order within the hexameric units of C-phycocyanin the anisotropy does not decay to zero. The Förster dipole-dipole mechanism of energy transfer can qualitatively explain these data provided that there is no back transfer of excitation energy and that the chromophore distribution is non-random. The rate of energy transfer in phycobilisomes between C-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin can best be described by a double exponential with lifetimes of 12 ± 3 and 84 ± 8 ps.     

Picosecond fluorescence kinetics in spinach chloroplasts at room temperature. Effects of Mg

Single-photon timing with picosecond resolution is used to investigate the effect of Mg²⁺ on the room-temperature fluorescence decay kinetics in broken spinach chloroplasts. In agreement with an earlier paper (Haehnel, W., Nairn, J.A., Reisberg, P. and Sauer, K. (1982) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 680, 161–173), we find three components in the fluorescence decay both in the presence and in the absence of Mg²⁺. The behavior of these components is examined as a function of Mg²⁺ concentration at both the F₀ and the F_max fluorescence levels, and as a function of the excitation intensity for thylakoids from spinach chloroplasts isolated in the absence of added Mg²⁺. Analysis of the results indicates that the subsequent addition of Mg²⁺ has effects which occur at different levels of added cation. At low levels of Mg²⁺ (less than 0.75 mM), there appears to be a decrease in communication between Photosystem (PS) II and PS I, which amounts to a decrease in the spillover rate between PS II and PS I. At higher levels of Mg²⁺ (about 2 mM), there appears to be an increase in communication between PS II units and an increase in the effective absorption cross-section of PS II, probably both of these involving the chlorophyll light-harvesting antenna.     

Picosecond time-resolved energy transfer in Porphyridium cruentum. Part I. In the intact alga

The wavelength-resolved fluorescence emission kinetics of the accessory pigments and chlorophyll a in Porphyridium cruentum have been studied by picosecond laser spectroscopy. Direct excitation of the pigment B-phycoerythrin with a 530 nm, 6 ps pulse produced fluorescence emission from all of the pigments as a result of energy transfer between the pigments to the reaction centre of Photosystem II. The emission from B-phycoerythrin at 576 nm follows a nonexponential decay law with a mean fluorescence lifetime of 70 ps, whereas the fluorescence from R-phycocyanin (640 nm), allophycocyanin (660 nm) and chlorophyll a (685 nm) all appeared to follow an exponential decay law with lifetimes of 90 ps, 118 ps and 175 ps respectively. Upon closure of the Photosystem II reaction centres with 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea and preillumination the chlorophyll a decay became non-exponential, having a long component with an apparent lifetime of 840 ps. The fluorescence from the latter three pigments all showed finite risetimes to the maximum emission intensity of 12 ps for R-phycocyanin, 24 ps for allophycocyanin and 50 ps for chlorophyll a.A kinetic analysis of these results indicates that energy transfer between the pigments is at least 99% efficient and is governed by an exp $\text{?At}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>1</mtext><mtext>2</mtext>}}$ transfer function. The apparent exponential behaviour of the fluorescence decay functions of the latter three pigments is shown to be a direct result of the energy transfer kinetics, as are the observed risetimes in the fluorescence emissions.     

Picosecond fluorescence kinetics in spinach chloroplasts at room temperature. Effects of Mg2+

Single-photon timing with picosecond resolution is used to investigate the effect of Mg²⁺ on the room-temperature fluorescence decay kinetics in broken spinach chloroplasts. In agreement with an earlier paper (Haehnel, W., Nairn, J.A., Reisberg, P. and Sauer, K. (1982) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 680, 161–173), we find three components in the fluorescence decay both in the presence and in the absence of Mg²⁺. The behavior of these components is examined as a function of Mg²⁺ concentration at both the F₀ and the F_max fluorescence levels, and as a function of the excitation intensity for thylakoids from spinach chloroplasts isolated in the absence of added Mg²⁺. Analysis of the results indicates that the subsequent addition of Mg²⁺ has effects which occur at different levels of added cation. At low levels of Mg²⁺ (less than 0.75 mM), there appears to be a decrease in communication between Photosystem (PS) II and PS I, which amounts to a decrease in the spillover rate between PS II and PS I. At higher levels of Mg²⁺ (about 2 mM), there appears to be an increase in communication between PS II units and an increase in the effective absorption cross-section of PS II, probably both of these involving the chlorophyll $\text{a}\text{b}$ light-harvesting antenna.     

Delayed fluorescence from Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides reaction centers. Enthalpy and free energy changes accompanying electron transfer from P-870 to quinones

Delayed fluorescence from isolated reaction centers of Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides was measured to study the energetics of electron transfer from the bacteriochlorophyll complex (P-870, or P) to the primary and secondary quinones (Q_A and Q_B). The analysis was based on the assumption that electron transfer between P and Q reaches equilibrium quickly after flash excitation, and stays in equilibrium during the lifetime of the P⁺Q⁻ radical pair. Delayed fluorescence of 1Q reaction centers (reaction centers that contain only Q_A) has a lifetime of about 0.1 s, which corresponds to the decay of P⁺Q⁻_A. 2Q reaction centers (which contain both Q_A and Q_B) have a much weaker delayed fluorescence, with a lifetime that corresponds to that of P⁺Q⁻_B (about 1 s). In the presence of o-phenanthroline, the delayed fluorescence of 2Q reaction centers becomes similar in intensity and decay kinetics to that of 1Q reaction centers. From comparisons of the intensities of the delayed fluorescence from P⁺Q⁻_A and P⁺Q⁻_B, the standard free energy difference between P⁺Q⁻_A and P⁺Q⁻_B is calculated to be 78 ± 8 meV. From a comparison of the intensity of the delayed fluorescence with that of prompt fluorescence, we calculate that P⁺Q⁻_A is 0.86 ± 0.02 eV below the excited singlet state of P in free energy, or about 0.52 eV above the ground state PQ_A. The temperature dependence of the delayed fluorescence indicates that P⁺Q⁻_A is about 0.75 eV below the excited singlet state in enthalpy, or about 0.63 eV above the ground state.     

Real-time monitoring of RNA helicase activity using fluorescence resonance energy transfer in vitro

We have developed a continuous fluorescence assay based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) for the monitoring of RNA helicase activity in vitro. The assay is tested using the hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3 helicase as a model. We prepared a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) substrate with a 5′ fluorophore-labeled strand hybridized to a 3′ quencher-labeled strand. When the dsRNA is unwound by helicase, the fluorescence of the fluorophore is emitted following the separation of the strands. Unlike in conventional gel-based assays, this new assay eliminates the complex and time-consuming steps, and can be used to simply measure the real-time kinetics in a single helicase reaction. Our results demonstrate that Alexa Fluor 488 and BHQ1 are an effective fluorophore-quencher pair, and this assay is suitable for the quantitative measurement of the RNA helicase activity of HCV NS3. Moreover, we found that several extracts of marine organisms exhibited different inhibitory effects on the RNA and DNA helicase activities of HCV NS3. We propose that this assay will be useful for monitoring the detailed kinetics of RNA unwinding mechanisms and screening RNA helicase inhibitors at high throughput.     

The effect of redox potential on the kinetics of fluorescence induction in Photosystem II particles from Phormidium laminosum. Sigmoidicity,energy transfer and the slow phase

Fluorescence induction curves in 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU)-inhibited Photosystem (PS) II particles isolated from the blue-green alga Phormidium laminosum have been analysed as a function of redox potential. Redox titration of the initial fluorescence indicated a single component with E_m,7.5 = +30 mV (n = 1) (Bowes, J., Horton, P. and Bendall, D.S. (1981) FEBS Lett. 135, 261–264). Despite this simplified electron acceptor system and the small number of chlorophylls per reaction centre, a sigmoidal induction curve was nevertheless seen. Sigmoidicity decreased as Q was reduced potentiometrically prior to induction such that the induction was exponential when the ratio $\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>i</mtext>}}\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>m</mtext>}}\text{= 0.64}$. These particles also showed a slow (β) phase of induction which titrated with an E_m value slightly more positive than that of the major quencher. It is concluded that the sigmoidal shape of the fluorescence induction curve observed in Phormidium PS II particles is not a consequence of a requirement for two photons to close the PS II reaction centre, but is generated as a result of energy transfer between photosynthetic units comprising one reaction centre per approx. 50 chlorophylls. Also, the existence of PS II heterogeneity (PS II_α, PS II_β centres) does not require a structurally differentiated chloroplast, but may only indicate the extent of aggregation of PS II centres.     

Free energy change accompanying electron transfer from P870 to quinone in Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides chromatophores

Delayed fluorescence of chromatophores of Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides was measured to estimate the standard free energy change accompanying the electron transfer from the bacteriochlorophyll dimer (P) to the primary acceptor quinone (Q_A). The chromatophores emitted delayed fluorescence with a lifetime of about 60 ms in the presence of o-phenanthroline. By comparing the intensity of the delayed fluorescence with that of the prompt fluorescence, the standard free energy of the P⁺Q_A^? radical pair was evaluated. It was about 0.87 eV below the level of excited singlet state, P1Q_A, or 0.51 eV above the ground state, PQ_A, independent of pH.     

Picosecond fluorescence kinetics in spinach chloroplasts at room temperature. Effects of phosphorylation

We have used single-photon timing with picosecond resolution to investigate the effect of phosphorylation on the fluorescence decay from broken spinach chloroplasts. Phosphorylation of spinach thylakoids causes a quenching of the slow decay phase (equivalent to a quenching of variable fluorescence) and an increase in the yield of the middle phase decay component. In addition, phosphorylation alters the intensity dependence of fluorescence in a manner which indicates a decreased antenna size of Photosystem II. The observed changes are indicative of a State 1-State 2 transition and show a clear reversal when the membranes are dephosphorylated.     

Energy transfer within the isolated light-harvesting B800–850 pigment-protein complex of Rhodobacter sphaeroides

We have used picosecond absorption spectroscopy with low intensity (5 · 10¹¹–5 · 10¹² photons · pulse⁻¹ · cm⁻²) continuously tunable infrared (800–900 nm) pulses to study the energy transfer dynamics in the isolated B800–850 pigment-protein complex of Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Our results suggest the following picture of the energy transfer dynamics: (i) a fast transfer, within approx. 1 ps, from BChl 800 to BChl 850; (ii) transfer among different BChl 800's with a rate which is at the most of the same order of magnitude as that of BChl 800 → BChl 850 transfer; (iii) very fast transfer (k > 1 · 10¹² s⁻¹) between BChl 850 molecules. Assuming Förster type of energy transfer maximum distances of about 22 and 15 Å are obtained for the BChl 800–BChl 850 and BChl 850–BChl 850 separations, respectively.     

Horizontal arsC gene transfer among microorganisms isolated from arsenic polluted soil

The study of recent evolution of the arsC genes amplified from microorganisms inhabiting a Colombian oil-polluted soil with high concentrations of arsenic was performed through the isolation of 26 bacterial morphotypes resistant to 10 mM of arsenate. A 353 bp fragment of the gene coding for arsenate-reductase enzyme (i.e. arsC), and a 500 bp 16S rDNA partial sequence were sequenced for 16 morphotypes of the 26 previously isolated. arsC sequences clustered on the same clade with previously reported arsC chromosomal genes of Escherichia coli and Shigella sp.; while 16S rDNA sequences grouped within the genus Pseudomonas and Bacillus. The GC content and the Codon Adaptation Index (CAI) were calculated and statistically compared, both supported the previous results. The Isolation-Migration model (IM model) was applied to calculate the genetic flux between each clade defined by the phylogenetic analysis. In general, the existence of recent horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events was confirmed, and the presence of the arsC gene in Bacillus sphaericus is reported for the first time.     

Excitation energy transfer from tryptophan residues of peptides and intrinsic proteins to diphenylhexatriene in phospholipid vesicles and biological membranes

An efficient excitation energy transfer from tryptophan residues of intrinsic membrane proteins to an extrinsic fluorescent probe (diphenylhexatriene) has been demonstrated in rat erythrocyte ghosts. To correlate this transfer with the localization of the probe, a model system has been investigated. It consists of peptides containing lysine and tryptophan residues bound to negatively charged phosphatidylserine vesicles. Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopies were used to follow peptide binding and diphenylhexatriene incorporation. Peptide binding is accompanied by a blue shift of the tryptophan fluorescence together with an increase of the quantum yield and of the fluorescence decay time. An experimental Föster critical distance value of 4.0 nm was found for energy transfer from tryptophan residues of peptides to diphenylhexatriene which approaches the range of calculated values (3.1–3.7 nm) using a two-dimensional model. These results demonstrate that efficient energy transfer can occur from tryptophan residues of intrinsic proteins to diphenylhexatriene without any interaction between diphenylhexatriene and proteins in biological membranes.     

Determination of angiotensin I-converting enzyme activity in cell culture using fluorescence resonance energy transfer peptides

An assay using fluorescence resonance energy transfer peptides was developed to assess angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) activity directly on the membrane of transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) stably expressing the full-length somatic form of the enzyme. The advantage of the new method is the possibility of using selective substrates for the two active sites of the enzyme, namely Abz-FRK(Dnp)P-OH for somatic ACE, Abz-SDK(Dnp)P-OH for the N domain, and Abz-LFK(Dnp)-OH for the C domain. Hydrolysis of a peptide bond between the donor/acceptor pair (Abz/Dnp) generates detectable fluorescence, allowing quantitative measurement of the enzymatic activity. The kinetic parameter K(m) for the hydrolysis of the three substrates by ACE in this system was also determined and the values are comparable to those obtained using the purified enzyme in solution. The specificity of the activity was demonstrated by the complete inhibition of the hydrolysis by the ACE inhibitor lisinopril. Therefore, the results presented in this work show for the first time that determination of ACE activity directly on the surface of intact CHO cells is feasible and that the method is reliable and sensitive. In conclusion, we describe a methodology that may represent a new tool for the assessment of ACE activity which will open the possibility to study protein interactions in cells in culture.