Factors influencing the abundance of Japanese encephalitis vectors in ricefields in India – I. Abiotic

Mosquitoes of the Culex vishnui subgroup (Diptera: Culicidae) are the most important vectors of Japanese encephalitis (JE) and ricefields are their most productive breeding sites in south India, where predominant species of this subgroup are Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles, Cx. pseudovishnui Colless and Cx. vishnui Theobald sensu stricto. The relationship of 13 abiotic variables with the abundance of Cx. vishnui subgroup immatures was investigated in transplanted rice fields for 3 years (1991-94) covering three different crop seasons. The results from the multiple regression model suggested paddy height (- ve), water temperature (+ ve), dissolved oxygen (- ve), ammonia nitrogen (- ve) and nitrate nitrogen (+ ve) to be the best predictor variables associated with the immature abundance, nearly always consistent in their effects within and between seasons. Application of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers to the rice fields was followed by a rise in concentration of ammonia nitrogen and a subsequent increase in nitrate nitrogen level in the rice field water, during which an increase in the density of larval instars was observed.     

Factors influencing the abundance of Japanese encephalitis vectors in ricefields in India--II. Biotic

The relationship of insect predators and phytoplankton with the abundance of Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles, Cx. vishnui Theobald and Cx. pseudovishnui Colless mosquito larvae and pupae (Diptera: Culicidae) in ricefields was investigated during three rice growing seasons. Notonectids were the most abundant insect predators, whereas diatoms dominated among phytoplankton. Multiple regression analysis showed that the occurrence of notonectids (both nymphs and adults) was negatively associated with larval abundance. Phytoplankton, especially diatoms and blue green algae (BGA), were found to favour abundance of culicine immatures during Navarai and Kuruvai crops, respectively. Larval gut analysis showed that the intake of algae by late instars was high, with 93%, 58% and 24% of diatoms, BGA and green algae, respectively. Filamentous algae may not necessarily be of nutritive value, but they are observed to form mats, which provide protection to the mosquito immatures from the predators.     

Control of nematode disease of egg plant (Solanum aethiopicum) using manure

Pot experiment was conducted in the year 2010 and repeated in 2011 to examine the effects of organic manure (poultry, cow dung and domestic waste) and inorganic manure (NPK 15:15:15) on the yield, soil and root population of Meloidogyne incognita-infected Ethiopian egg plant Solanum aethiopicum in a greenhouse at Kabba college of agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, Kabba, Nigeria. Each of the organic manure was applied as soil amendment at the rate of 5t/ha and the inorganic fertiliser (NPK) was applied at the rate of 200?kg/ha, while there was an untreated control that acted as standard check. The experimental design was a completely randomised design comprising of five treatments including control and each of the treatments was replicated four times. The result of the experiment showed that all the organic manures considered and NPK fertilisers were effective in suppressing the nematode’s negative effects on the plant, as shown by the improved yield, reduced soil and root population as well as reduced gall index of the organic and inorganic manure-treated plant compared with the control. The mean fruit yield of the manure-treated plant was of the range 18?±?1 fruits and NPK fertiliser had an average of fruit number of 17, while the untreated control recorded an average fruit number of 6.5. The organic and inorganic manure-treated plants recorded bigger fruit size compared with control, and are significantly different from the control. The soil and root population as well as root gall index are reduced in all the manure treatments compared with the control and are significantly different from the control. The result of this experiment confirmed that organic manure can be utilised to manage nematode in soil endemic with root-knot nematode M. incognita.     

Manure application improves both bumblebee flower visitation and crop yield in intensive farmland

Pollinators provide vital ecosystem services across croplands, yet simultaneously they are influenced by agricultural practices. Nevertheless, only a few studies have explored the potential interactions between soil fertilisers and pollinators. The aim of the current study, which was carried out in Poland in 2015, was to investigate the effect of different fertiliser regimes on bumblebee flower visitation rate and seed yield in crops of the field bean (Vicia faba L.). Our results show that the number of bumblebee visits may be affected by the choice of crop fertiliser. We detected differences in bumblebee number between fertiliser treatments. The organic fertiliser (manure) treatment resulted in the highest bumblebee visitation, although this did not differ significantly from NP, no fertiliser and NK treatments. On the other hand, we observed lower numbers of bumblebees on field bean plots treated with N, NPK, and PK inorganic fertilisers. Manure application also boosted plant height and resulted in a high yield similar to other balanced fertilisers (NPK and PK). Therefore, manure was the only fertiliser that resulted in a high field bean yield and at the same time attracted the main pollinators of the crop. Thus, we suggest that appropriate management practices influence both plant growth and also pollination services and we show that modern agriculture can make compromise between effectiveness and nature conservation.     

Dynamics and diversity of mosquito vectors of Japanese encephalitis virus in Kandal province,Cambodia

The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is one of the main causes of encephalitis in Asia, including Cambodia. An understanding of the interactions between JEV hosts and vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) remains rare in the context of expanding urbanization. The relative abundance, species diversity and population dynamics of potential JEV vectors were studied between August 2015 and July 2016 on a peri-urban and rural pig farm in Kandal province, Cambodia, where JEV is circulating. Five similar environments in the two farms were selected for mosquito trapping: pig farm, cattle house, river/canals, household/ponds and paddy fields. The main objective was to describe the distribution and the dynamics of the main JEV vector mosquito species. In total, 83,013 mosquitoes from 20 species were caught in rural and peri-urban areas, and 82.3% of the mosquitoes were potential JEV vector species. In peri-urban areas, Culex (Cx.) gelidus was the most abundant species, followed by Cx. vishnui subgroup and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus. In rural areas, the same species were dominant: Cx. vishnui subgroup, Cx. gelidus and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus. The vast majority of mosquitoes (95.9%) were collected in close proximity to pigs and cattle. In conclusion, JEV vectors were present at all study sites and throughout all months of the year, supporting a continuous circulation of JEV in Cambodia.     

Quantitative proteomics to study the response of potato to contrasting fertilisation regimes

There is concern over the sustainability and environmental impact of mineral fertilisers and crop protection inputs used in intensive arable crop production systems. However, replacing mineral with organic fertilisers (animal and green manures) and restricting the use of chemosynthetic crop protection may significantly reduce crop yields. The effects of (a) replacing mineral with composted cattle manure fertiliser input and (b) omitting pesticide-based crop protection on potato (Solanum tuberosum) tuber yield, leaf and tuber mineral nutrient content and leaf protein profiles were investigated. Switching to organic fertiliser had a greater effect on yield and protein profiles than the omission of chemosynthetic crop protection. Leaf N and P composition were significant drivers of protein expression, particularly proteins involved in photosynthesis such as the large subunit of RuBisCO, RuBisCO activase and the photosystem I reaction centre, which were at higher abundances in potato leaves grown under mineral fertiliser regimes. Proteins known to be induced in response to stress, such as dehydroascorbate reductase and Glutathione S-transferases, were also shown to be up-regulated under mineral fertilisation, possibly associated with higher Cd composition, whereas two proteins known to be involved in biotic stress (1,3-β-d-glucan glucanohydrolase; putative Kunitz-type tuber invertase inhibitor) were more abundant under compost fertilisation. Results showed that switching from mineral to organic fertilisers led to reduced N availability, a significant change in leaf protein expression and lower tuber yield. In contrast, omission of chemosynthetic crop protection inputs had limited effects on protein expression and no significant effect on tuber yield. This study provides information on the effects of changes in nutrient supply on protein expression patterns. It is a prerequisite for the development of functional molecular markers for a directed strategy to inform breeding programmes to improve potato nutrient use efficiency.     

The role of urea in the oviposition behaviour of Japanese encephalitis vectors in rice fields of South India

The effect of urea on the oviposition behaviour of culicine vectors of Japanese encephalitis was studied in rice fields. Gravid females had a strong preference for oviposition in urea treated areas in rice fields, while no such preference was exhibited in untreated areas. The egg laying declined in the area where urea treated water surface had a mechanical barrier, which allowed volatile fractions to escape, but prevented contact with the water. Urea was shown to act as an oviposition attractant/stimulant for Culex tritaeniorhynchus, but its role was not clear for Cx. vishnui, as the number of egg rafts obtained for the latter species was low.     

Turfgrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) sod production on sandy soils: I. Effects of irrigation and fertiliser regimes on growth and quality

The effects on growth, quality and N uptake by turfgrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) during sod production of four fertiliser types applied at three application rates (100, 200 or 300 kg N ha⁻¹ per ‘crop’) under two irrigation treatments (70% and 140% daily replacement of pan evaporation) were investigated. The fertiliser types were: water-soluble (predominately NH₄NO₃), control-release, pelletised poultry manure, and pelletised biosolids; and the experiment was conducted on a sandy soil in a Mediterranean-type climate. Plots were established from rhizomes, with the turfgrass harvested as sod every 16–28 weeks depending upon the time of the year. Four crops were produced during the study. Applying water-soluble and control-release fertilisers doubled shoot growth and improved turfgrass greenness by up to 10% in comparison with plots receiving pelletised poultry manure and pelletised biosolids. Nitrogen uptake into the shoots after four crops (averaged across irrigation treatments and N rates) was 497 kg N ha⁻¹ for the water-soluble fertiliser, 402 kg N ha⁻¹ for the control-release, 188 kg N ha⁻¹ for the pelletised poultry manure and 237 kg N ha⁻¹ for the pelletised biosolids. Consequently, the agronomic nitrogen-use efficiency (NAE, kg DM kg⁻¹ N applied) of the inorganic fertilisers was approximately twice that of the organic fertilisers. Increasing irrigation from 70% to 140% replacement of pan evaporation was detrimental to turfgrass growth and N uptake for the first crop when supplied with the water-soluble fertiliser. Under the low irrigation treatment, inorganic N fertilisers applied at 200–300 kg N ha⁻¹ were adequate for production of turfgrass sod. Section Editor: P. J. Randall     

Epidemio-entomological survey of Japanese encephalitis in Korea.

In order to determine the seasonal prevalence and population dynamics of Culex tritaeniorhynchus in relation to the epidemics of Japanese encephalitis, and ecology of these vector mosquito in Kyungpook Province, Korea, studies were conducted during the period of 7 years from 1984 to 1990. Cx. tritaeniorhynchus first collected in June between 4th and 28th, and trapped in large numbers during the period from mid-August to early September, showed a simple sharply pointed one-peaked curve. There was a gradual decrease from mid-September, with a very small number of them collected until early October in every year. The average number of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus rapidly decreased after 1985, and the number became particularly low in 1989. The highest population density, which was observed in August during the initial three years, was found to be delayed in the following years, accompanied by a decrease in the number of mosquitoes. In the trend of nocturnal activity of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, with oncoming darkness they become very active, gradually decreasing in activity toward mid night, but slightly increasing toward dawn. The immature stages of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus were first found in rice fields contributing to peak adult densities in mid-July. The highest average densities of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus was 14,900 per m2 on mid-August 19th. The larval Cx. tritaeniorhynchus showed high resistance levels and resistance ratios against 5 organophosphorus compounds. In the adult horizontal life table characteristics of Kyungsan colonies of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus under insectary conditions, life expectancy was 28.3 days for males and 59.8 days for females. The net reproductive rate was 7.8 and generation time was 25.6 days.     

Cattle Manure Enhances Methanogens Diversity and Methane Emissions Compared to Swine Manure under Rice Paddy

Livestock manures are broadly used in agriculture to improve soil quality. However, manure application can increase the availability of organic carbon, thereby facilitating methane (CH₄) production. Cattle and swine manures are expected to have different CH₄ emission characteristics in rice paddy soil due to the inherent differences in composition as a result of contrasting diets and digestive physiology between the two livestock types. To compare the effect of ruminant and non-ruminant animal manure applications on CH₄ emissions and methanogenic archaeal diversity during rice cultivation (June to September, 2009), fresh cattle and swine manures were applied into experimental pots at 0, 20 and 40 Mg fresh weight (FW) ha⁻¹ in a greenhouse. Applications of manures significantly enhanced total CH₄ emissions as compared to chemical fertilization, with cattle manure leading to higher emissions than swine manure. Total organic C contents in cattle (466 g kg⁻¹) and swine (460 g kg⁻¹) manures were of comparable results. Soil organic C (SOC) contents were also similar between the two manure treatments, but dissolved organic C (DOC) was significantly higher in cattle than swine manure. The mcrA gene copy numbers were significantly higher in cattle than swine manure. Diverse groups of methanogens which belong to Methanomicrobiaceae were detected only in cattle-manured but not in swine-manured soil. Methanogens were transferred from cattle manure to rice paddy soils through fresh excrement. In conclusion, cattle manure application can significantly increase CH₄ emissions in rice paddy soil during cultivation, and its pretreatment to suppress methanogenic activity without decreasing rice productivity should be considered.     

不同有机肥源及其与化肥配施对稻田

比较了不同施肥方式对江苏金坛(31°39′41.8″ N, 119°28′23.5″ E)稻麦轮作体系下稻季土壤线虫群落结构的影响.试验共设CK(不施肥)、F(100%化肥)、PF(猪粪堆肥配施50%化肥)、SF(秸秆全量还田配施100%化肥)、PSF(猪粪堆肥和秸秆全量还田配施50%化肥)和PMF(猪粪商品有机无机复合肥)6个处理,在秋季水稻收获后进行采样.连续两年的试验结果表明: 线虫种群在不同处理和年份间存在变化.配施有机肥能够增加线虫总数,降低食细菌线虫的丰度,显著提高杂食/捕食性线虫的丰度;各处理食真菌线虫的丰度无显著差异;单施化肥和猪粪商品有机无机复合肥对植食性线虫的抑制作用不明显.第二年配施有机肥的食细菌线虫丰度较第一年相对提高,植食性线虫(潜根属Hirschmanniella)丰度相对降低.从土壤线虫生态学指数来看,配施有机肥处理第二年的土壤线虫多样性均显著提高,丰富度指数有上升的趋势,而线虫通路比值几乎没有变化.第二年瓦斯乐斯卡指数较第一年相对提高,而植食性线虫成熟指数相对降低.施用有机肥能够提高土壤食微线虫的丰度,使土壤环境趋于健康.     

Phosphorus availability to maize as influenced by organic manures and fertilizer P associated phosphatase activity in soils

Laboratory incubation and green house studies were conducted to compare the P availability of organic manures and P uptake from organic manures by maize. Various organic manures viz. Poultry manure (PM), Farmyard manure (FYM), Green manure (GM) and Crop residue (CR) and graded levels of fertilizer P were applied in Samana sandy loam and Ladhowal silt loam soils and incubated for 7, 15, 30, 60 and 90 days. Samples were analyzed for P availability, P uptake and alkaline phosphatase activity. The overall, phosphatase activity, Paranitrophenyl phosphate (PNP h⁻¹ g⁻¹), in the Ladhowal silt loam soil was higher than in the Samana sandy loam soil. As the level of inorganic P increased, the release of PNP h⁻¹ g⁻¹ soil also increased. Among different organic manures, PM registered the highest enzyme activity followed by FYM, GM and CR. Compared to 7 days incubation a slightly higher increase in PNP was noticed in samples from 90 days incubation in both soils. The differential phosphatase activity in the organic manures was further reflected in dynamic P availability. The highest amount of Olsen extractable P was in PM-treated soil followed by FYM, GM and field pea crop residue. Organic manure addition along with inorganic P, irrespective of the source, increased the Olsen extractable P throughout the incubation period. Total P uptake by maize increased with the increasing level of inorganic P in both soils. The highest uptake was obtained in PM-treated soil and lowest in the CR-amended soil. We conclude that PM more readily supplies P to plants than other organic manure sources.     

Development of combined use of neem (Azadirachta indica) and water management for the control of culicine mosquitoes in rice fields

Abstract. Crude neem products have earlier shown considerable promise for control of culicine mosquito vectors in rice fields as a by-product of their agricultural use as fertilizers, but suffer from disadvantages of bulkiness and lack of stability in storage. Relatively stable lipid-rich fractions of neem were shown to be as effective as good-quality crude neem products in control of breeding of culicine vectors of Japanese encephalitis, and also produced a slight but significant reduction in populations of anopheline pupae. Neem-based formulations coated over urea significantly increased grain yield, but used alone did not, whereas combining the use of neem-coated urea and water management by intermittent irrigation had a greater effect on grain yield than that of water management alone. The neem fractions were relatively cost-effective, and the combined water management and neem-coated urea strategy is acceptable to farmers, who are already aware of the benefits of the use of neem-coated urea, and of water management. This technology therefore has considerable promise as an environmentally benign method of rice-field mosquito control that could be sustainably implemented by farmers.     

Population interactions between Culex vishnui mosquitoes and their natural enemies in Pondicherry, India.

Population interactions among mosquitoes in the Culex vishnui subgroup, which are vectors of Japanese Encephalitis, and their natural enemies were studied in Pondicherry, India. We tested the hypothesis that the breakdown of interactions between the larvae and their natural enemies due to drought followed by rain was responsible for the sudden increase in the vector population above the threshold for disease transmission during the heavy rainy period. We randomly sampled mosquito larvae and their predators in different breeding habitats and subjected the mean densities of prey, predator, and mosquito larvae infected with parasites/pathogens to covariate analysis to understand the interaction between prey and their natural enemies in relation to environmental factors. In rice fields, neither prey nor predator showed any positive correlation with temperature, RH, or the number of rainy days. However, the pathogen/parasite of mosquito immatures showed a positive correlation with RH. Among the mosquito predators, notonectids exhibited a significant positive correlation with Cx. vishnui larvae. The parasitic Romanomermis iyengari and pathogenic Coelomomyces anopheliscus also showed positive correlations with immatures. No parasites and pathogens of mosquito larvae were recorded in shallow water pools (SWP) or cement tanks (CT) during the study period. Important predators recorded in SWP were notonectids, damselfly nymphs, Diplonychus indicus, and hydrophilids. Dragonfly nymphs, gerrids, and tadpole shrimps were recorded in CT. In CT, prey and their predators were positively correlated with RH and rainy days. In SWP, there was a highly significant correlation between prey, predators and environmental factors. We conclude that rice fields are a stable ecosystem where regular interaction occurs between larvae and their natural enemies and a sudden increase in mosquito populations is uncommon. In transient habitats, no such stability is present and they become more important as breeding habitats in terms of seasonality and number. Shallow water pools should be seriously considered for the control of these vectors.     

Review of Climate,Landscape, and Viral Genetics as Drivers of the Japanese Encephalitis Virus Ecology

The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), an arthropod-born Flavivirus, is the major cause of viral encephalitis, responsible for 10,000–15,000 deaths each year, yet is a neglected tropical disease. Since the JEV distribution area has been large and continuously extending toward new Asian and Australasian regions, it is considered an emerging and reemerging pathogen. Despite large effective immunization campaigns, Japanese encephalitis remains a disease of global health concern. JEV zoonotic transmission cycles may be either wild or domestic: the first involves wading birds as wild amplifying hosts; the second involves pigs as the main domestic amplifying hosts. Culex mosquito species, especially Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, are the main competent vectors. Although five JEV genotypes circulate, neither clear-cut genotype-phenotype relationship nor clear variations in genotype fitness to hosts or vectors have been identified. Instead, the molecular epidemiology appears highly dependent on vectors, hosts'' biology, and on a set of environmental factors. At global scale, climate, land cover, and land use, otherwise strongly dependent on human activities, affect the abundance of JEV vectors, and of wild and domestic hosts. Chiefly, the increase of rice-cultivated surface, intensively used by wading birds, and of pig production in Asia has provided a high availability of resources to mosquito vectors, enhancing the JEV maintenance, amplification, and transmission. At fine scale, the characteristics (density, size, spatial arrangement) of three landscape elements (paddy fields, pig farms, human habitations) facilitate or impede movement of vectors, then determine how the JEV interacts with hosts and vectors and ultimately the infection risk to humans. If the JEV is introduced in a favorable landscape, either by live infected animals or by vectors, then the virus can emerge and become a major threat for human health. Multidisciplinary research is essential to shed light on the biological mechanisms involved in the emergence, spread, reemergence, and genotypic changes of JEV.     

长期施用猪粪红壤稻田土壤Cu、Zn累积规律

为揭示长期施用猪粪红壤稻田土壤Cu、Zn累积规律,以设立于1981年的红壤稻田有机肥定位试验为载体,选取PM1(早稻施猪粪和紫云英)、PM2(早稻施紫云英+晚稻施猪粪)、GMS(早稻施紫云英+晚稻秸秆还田)和NPK(早稻施化肥)等处理为对象,分析了不同试验年限土壤全量和有效态Cu、Zn含量。结果表明:长期施用猪粪显著提高了土壤Cu、Zn含量;连续施用猪粪30 a后,土壤全量Cu、Zn含量分别增加了7.69—9.52 mg/kg和22.42—35.46 mg/kg;生物有效性显著增加,有效态Cu、Zn含量占全量Cu、Zn的比例分别由15%和5%增加到51%和27%。猪粪年度内的施用时间对土壤Cu的累积没有显著影响,早稻施用猪粪加剧了土壤Zn的累积。土壤铜、锌累积分为两个差异显著的阶段,1981—2002年为缓慢增长期,2002—2010年为快速增长期,这可能与2002年后施用的猪粪中Cu、Zn含量增高有关。以研究的结果推算,红壤稻田鲜猪粪施用量在9.5 t hm-2a-1以下,50 a内不会造成土壤Cu、Zn含量超标。     

Production of 15N-Labelled Liquid Organic Fertilisers Based on Manure and Crop Residue for Use in Fertigation Studies

Large quantities of crop residue and animal manure from agricultural and livestock activities are annually produced worldwide. With proper management, these residues are potentially valuable sources of plant nutrients, mainly N. Recycling such subproducts in sustainably-based agricultural systems can minimise the use of mineral fertilisers, and hence reduce the potential risk of surface and groundwater pollution. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to obtain (small scale) two liquid labelled-organic fertilisers, an animal- and a vegetal-based organic (AO and VO, respectively) fertiliser, to be used as organic N sources in subsequent fertigation studies. Forage maize (Zea mays L.) grown under ¹⁵N-labelled fertiliser supply was used as raw material for VO fertiliser production, and also as ¹⁵N-labelled sheep feed to obtain ¹⁵N-labelled manure. The labelled faeces fraction was used as raw material for the AO fertiliser. The VO fertiliser was obtained after an acidic and an enzyme-driven hydrolysis. The AO fertiliser was obtained after acidic hydrolysis. The VO liquid fertiliser presented an N concentration of 330 mg·L^-1, 85% of total N was organic, while ammonium and nitrate N accounted for 55% and 45% of the mineral nitrogen fraction, respectively. This fertiliser also exhibited high K, Ca and S concentrations and notable values for the remaining macro- and micronutrients. The AO liquid fertiliser had a similar total N concentration (496 mg·L^-1, 82% of total N in an organic form) to that of VO, but its mineral N fraction significantly differed, which came in a predominantly (95%) ammonia form. It also had a high content of N, P, K and other macronutrients, and sufficient Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu and B levels, which suggests its suitability as a potential fertiliser. The percentage of ¹⁵N enrichment in both VO and AO liquid fertilisers exceeded 2% ¹⁵N atom excess, which enabled their use in subsequent assays run to assess nitrogen uptake efficiency.     

Influence of soil applied nitrogen (NPKS 25: 5: 5:5) on Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) mite incidence and damage symptoms on tea

Application of nitrogenous fertilisers (NPKS 25: 5: 5:5) for yield of tea and to induce tolerance to the red crevice ( Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes) mite was found to be rates between 150 and 200 Kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 rates above 400 Kg N ha^-1 encouraged the build up of mites on tea. Damage symptoms resulting from mite infestation declined with increase in application of nitrogenous fertilisers.
The levels of nitrogen in the leaf tissues increased with soil applied nitrogen and also was related to the mite numbers found on the leaves suggesting a link. The symptoms of the discoloured necrotic leaf base that accompanied mite infestation was significantly ( P ≤ 0.05) and linearly correlated (r = 0.60) to mite numbers in the control plot. The levels of applied nitrogen were negatively correlated to % leaf necrosis suggesting a tolerance leading to reduction in necrotic symptoms with fertiliser applications.     

Vector competence of Australian Culex gelidus Theobald (Diptera: Culicidae) for endemic and exotic arboviruses

The recent recognition of established populations of the mosquito, Culex gelidus Theobald, in Australia has raised concerns about local transmission of arboviruses. The vector competence of a mainland population of Cx. gelidus was investigated for two local alphaviruses, Ross River (RRV) and Barmah Forest (BFV) viruses, and three flaviviruses, Japanese encephalitis (JEV), Kunjin (KUNV) and Murray Valley encephalitis (MVEV) viruses. Colonised mosquitoes were exposed to virus via blood-soaked pledgets and transmission was tested using a capillary-tube method. The important Australian vectors, Aedes vigilax (Skuse) and Culex annulirostris Skuse, were used as internal controls for the alphaviruses and flaviviruses, respectively. Overall, Cx. gelidus was a more efficient vector of flaviviruses than alphaviruses. Culex gelidus was refractory to infection with BFV, and nearly 25% transmitted RRV, which was comparable to Ae. vigilax . Culex gelidus was susceptible to all three flaviviruses, with transmission rates of 96%, 95% and 41% for JEV, KUNV and MVEV, respectively. JEV transmission rates in Cx. annulirostris were unexpectedly low and this was possibly due to differences in susceptibility to JEV genotypes I and II. Considering the high susceptibility to the flaviviruses demonstrated here, and the natural infections with RRV and JEV that have been detected from northern Australian populations, the establishment of the exotic mosquito, Cx. gelidus , in Australia is potentially a significant public health concern.     

Spatial variation of soil quality and pollution assessment of heavy metals in cultivated soils of Henan Province,China

Abstract

Eight chemical and physical characteristics and seven biological properties of the soils from five cultivated areas in the Henan Province were quantified. Concentrations of Cu, Cr, Zn and Mn were determined using the flame atomic absorption spectrometry. In addition available phosphorus, chloride, soluble salt and pH were measured. The activities of enzymes were determined by a literature method. The results showed that the concentrations of Mn, Zn and Cr had close relationships with that of available phosphorus, and their concentrations increased with the prolonged application of organic and mineral fertilisers and pesticides-fungicides. The activities of cellulase have a relationship to the concentrations of Zn and Mn at 0.95 levels respectively, Zn and Mn stimulate many enzyme activities. The relationship between protease and available phosphorus was nearly distinctive at 0.95 levels, relating with the use of nitrogen fertiliser in the farmlands. Local organic manures and urea fertilisers did not change the soil characteristics to a great extent. However, the soils showed moderate and moderate-to-strong contamination by Mn and Zn in the study areas. Wastewater and groundwater irrigation, pesticides-fungicides, and fertiliser may be responsible for the elevated concentrations of Zn and Mn in the soil samples.