Metabolic acidosis and infant feeding.

Most cows'' milk based formulae for infant feeding present a greater acid load to the infant than breast milk. To determine the effect of this difference the acid base state of 180 healthy term infants was measured on the sixth day of life and related to the type of feed. Those infants fed on cows'' milk formula (SMA) had a mean pH of 7-34 +/- 0-05 and a base deficit of 8-8 +/- 3-1, while those fed on breast milk had a mean pH of 7-38 +/- 0-05 and a base deficit of 5-6 +/- 3-1. The difference between the two groups of infants was significant for both these measurements. Metabolic acidosis was defined as a base deficit greater than 10 mmol/l. Seventy-four per cent of the 34 infants who were acidotic at six days were bottle-fed. There was a significant correlation between the pH of the feed and the degree of acidosis in the infant as measured by the base deficit. The findings suggest that when breast milk is not available a pH-adjusted milk formula would be desirable for preventing and treating neonatal metabolic acidosis.     

Characterisation of intestinal bacteria in infant stools using real-time PCR and northern hybridisation analyses

Real-time PCR and northern hybridisations were used to quantify bacterial populations in the large gut of infants. PCR primers for rapid, sensitive, high throughput detection of bifidobacteria, bacteroides, sulphate-reducing bacteria and Enterococcus faecalis, based on analysis of 16S rRNA genes were used. Bacterial populations were analysed in faeces from 40 infants aged 0-6, 7-12 and 13-24 months. The effects of breast versus bottle feeding was also investigated. Real-time PCR indicated that bacteroides and desulfovibrio numbers increased markedly in the 7-12 and 13-24 month age groups, and that the reverse occurred with Ent. faecalis. With the exception of desulfovibrios, this was seen with northern hybridisations, which also showed increased colonisation by the Clostridium coccoides group and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii after 6 months. Both methodologies indicated increased bifidobacteria in breast-fed babies, and higher levels of desulfovibrios in bottle-fed children.     

Relation of infant diet to childhood health: seven year follow up of cohort of children in Dundee infant feeding study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relation of infant feeding practice to childhood respiratory illness, growth, body composition, and blood pressure. DESIGN: Follow up study of a cohort of children (mean age 7.3 years) who had detailed infant feeding and demographic data collected prospectively during the first two years of life. SETTING: Dundee. SUBJECTS: 674 infants, of whom 545 (81%) were available for study. Data on respiratory illness were available for 545 children (mean age 7.3 (range 6.1-9.9) years); height for 410 children; weight and body mass index for 412 children; body composition for 405 children; blood pressure for 301 children (mean age 7.2 (range 6.9-10.0) years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Respiratory illness, weight, height, body mass index, percentage body fat, and blood pressure in relation to duration of breast feeding and timing of introduction of solids. RESULTS: After adjustment for the significant confounding variables the estimated probability of ever having respiratory illness in children who received breast milk exclusively for at least 15 weeks was consistently lower (17.0% (95% confidence interval 15.9% to 18.1%) for exclusive breast feeding, 31.0% (26.8% to 35.2%) for partial breast feeding, and 32.2% (30.7% to 33.7%) for bottle feeding. Solid feeding before 15 weeks was associated with an increased probability of wheeze during childhood (21.0% (19.9% to 22.1%) v 9.7% (8.6% to 10.8%)). It was also associated with increased percentage body fat and weight in childhood (mean body fat 18.5% (18.2% to 18.8%) v 16.5% (16.0% to 17.0%); weight standard deviation score 0.02 (-0.02 to 0.06) v -0.09 (-0.16 to 0.02). Systolic blood pressure was raised significantly in children who were exclusively bottle fed compared with children who received breast milk (mean 94.2 (93.5 to 94.9) mm Hg v 90.7 (89.9 to 91.7) mm Hg). CONCLUSIONS: The probability of respiratory illness occurring at any time during childhood is significantly reduced if the child is fed exclusively breast milk for 15 weeks and no solid foods are introduced during this time. Breast feeding and the late introduction of solids may have a beneficial effect on childhood health and subsequent adult disease.     

Ecological correlates to social structure in two lemur species in Madagascar

In this study, I tested two hypotheses regarding the relationship of ecological variables (size, density, and distribution of patches) and infant developmental patterns to lemur social structure using two prosimian primates in Ranomafana, Madagascar: the rufous lemur (Eulemur fulvus rufus) and the red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer). Three predictions regarding the general effects of patch size and subgroup size on lemur feeding rates were supported: (1) Rufous lemurs used large patches; red-bellied lemurs used smaller patches; (2) larger subgroups of rufous lemurs used larger patches; and (3) rufous lemur feeding rates decreased significantly with increases in subgroup size and patch size, whereas size and patch size had no significant effect on red-bellied lemur feeding rates. However, food item size (fruit) had a more significant effect on rufous and red-bellied lemur feeding rates than either patch size or subgroup size. When similar-sized fruits were compared, rufous lemur feeding rates on small fruit were most affected by patch size, yet feeding rates on medium-sized fruit were most affected by subgroup size. Neither lemur species used patches in consistent ways seasonally. During periods of food abundance, rufous lemurs used many small, common, and clumped patches. In food scarcity periods, they used fewer, larger, rarer, and less clumped patches; groups migrated when food became most scarce. Red-bellied lemurs also used patches in variable ways, but these patterns were not linked with food availability. Finally, infant development patterns differed between lemur species; red-bellied lemur males cared for offspring and infants reached developmental landmarks faster than rufous lemur infants. Therefore, red-bellied lemur group size may be constrained by the need for additional infant care by other group members. In contrast, rufous lemur group size may be constrained by patch availability during the most critical period of food scarcity. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The protective effect of breast feeding in relation to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): II. The effect of human milk and infant formula preparations on binding of Clostridium perfringens to epithelial cells

Breast feeding is known to protect an infant against gastrointestinal pathogens and epidemiological studies indicate that compared to breast fed infants, formula fed infants are at a greater risk of dying from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Many SIDS infants have symptoms of gastrointestinal infections prior to death and one gastrointestinal pathogen associated with SIDS is Clostridium perfringens. Studies have found that a significantly higher number of formula fed SIDS infants have C perfringens and its enterotoxin in their faeces compared to breast fed infants. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of human milk and infant formula on binding of C perfringens to epithelial cells. Two protocols were used to assess the effect of human milk and infant formula to inhibit binding of C perfringens to epithelial cells. Binding was assessed by flow cytometry. For the in vivo protocol which more closely represents interactions on the mucosal surface, breast milk enhanced bacterial binding but infant formula caused inhibition of binding; however for the in vitro method, both human milk and infant formula resulted in consistent enhancement of binding. Flow cytometry studies indicated that enhancement of binding was due to the formation of bacterial aggregates. Lewis(a) and Lewis(b) antigens, found in both breast milk and infant formula, inhibited C. perfringens binding in a dose dependent manner. The Lewis(a) and Lewis(b) antigens in human milk and infant formula can inhibit C. perfringens binding to epithelial cells. While infant formula reduced binding of C. perfringens to epithelial cells in the experiments carried out with the in vivo protocol, the protective effects of breast feeding in relation to colonisation with C. perfringens are more likely to be due to formation of bacterial aggregates. These findings have implications for improving infant formula preparations.     

Inappropriate infant feeding practices of HIV-positive mothers attending PMTCT services in Oromia regional state,Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study

Background

Inappropriate infant feeding affects the probability of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and HIV-free survival of infants. However, in Ethiopia limited evidence exists regarding the infant feeding practice of mothers who are HIV-positive. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and predictors of inappropriate infant feeding among HIV-positive mothers attending the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) service in Adama and Bushoftu towns, Oromia, central Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in ten PMTCT service providing health facilities in the towns; 283 mother-infant pairs were enrolled. Appropriate infant feeding practice was defined as exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of age. Logistic regression was employed to analyze the data and the outputs are presented using adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

One hundred thirty of the infants were aged below six months, 103 between 6 and 11 months and 50 were older than 12 months. The prevalence of inappropriate infant feeding was 14.5% (95% CI 10.6, 18.7). About 6.3% and 8.3% practiced exclusive replacement feeding and mixed feeding respectively, in the first six months. Only 1.8% ever expressed their breast milk to feed their baby and none practiced wet nursing. Among 38 mothers who already discontinued breastfeeding 52.6% did so before 12 months of age. Mothers who were HIV-positive and had received antenatal (AOR?=?0.05: 0.01, 0.30) and postnatal visits (AOR?=?0.18: 0.04, 0.81); received infant feeding counseling (AOR?=?0.18: 0.06, 0.55); and disclosed their HIV status to their partners (AOR?=?0.28: 0.12, 0.63), showed a reduction of practicing inappropriate infant feeding. Mothers having breast problems (AOR?=?4.89: 1.54, 15.60) and infants with mouth ulcers (AOR?=?6.41: 2.07, 19.85) were more likely to practice inappropriate feeding.

Conclusion

Prompt management of breast complaints in mothers and mouth ulcer in infants; and provision of nutrition counseling to HIV-positive mothers, especially during antenatal and postnatal care, may help to improve the infant feeding practices for HIV exposed infants.

     

Determinants of infant mortality and representation in bioarchaeological samples: A review

In bioarchaeological contexts, a complex relationship exists between infant representation in the age-at-death distribution, gestational and young child mortality rates, and the total fertility rate. The representation of infants in a skeletal sample may be influenced by a range of social, biological, and archaeological factors. To better understand the interactions between representation, fertility, and mortality, this study evaluates the relationship between infant-juvenile age-at-death proportions, fertility rates, and a range of gestational and early childhood mortality measures. The statistical component of this study found the correlation between fertility rates and infant-juvenile proportions was stronger than with any mortality rate variable of interest. This suggests that the proportion of infants in a mortuary sample is a stronger indicator of fertility than it is of infant-juvenile mortality. Social, biological, and archaeological variables potentially influencing infant representation in skeletal samples are discussed and a strongly contextualized and holistic approach to infant and juvenile mortality is recommended.     

Patterns of infant handling and relatedness in Barbary macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca sylvanus</Emphasis>) on Gibraltar

Among papionin primates, the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) shows the most extensive interactions between infants and group members other than the mother. Two different types of interactions occur: (1) long-lasting dyadic interactions between a handler and an infant, and (2) brief triadic interactions between two handlers involving an infant. Previous investigations showed that infant handling by males is best explained as use of infants to manage relationships with other males. In contrast, no adaptive explanation for infant handling by females emerged. Here, we compared the infant-handling pattern between subadult/adult males and subadult/adult females in a free-ranging group of 46 Barbary macaques on Gibraltar to test whether the relationship management hypothesis also applies to female handlers. We further investigated the infant-handling pattern of juveniles and used microsatellite markers to estimate relatedness between infant handlers and the infant’s mother. We found that males, females and juveniles all participated extensively in triadic interactions using infants of above-average related females. In contrast, only males and juveniles were highly involved in dyadic interactions with infants of related females, while females rarely handled infants other than their own. The pattern of infant handling was entirely compatible with the predictions of the relationship management hypothesis for males and mostly so for females. Moreover, our genetic analysis revealed that males and females differ in their partner choice: while females preferred to interact with related females, males had no significant preference to interact with related males. We further discuss the observed above-average relatedness values between infant handlers and the infant’s mother in the light of kin-selection theory.     

The development of behavioural sex differences in infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Studies of infant rhesus macaques have generally reported sex differences in the frequency of expression of some behaviour patterns, such as rough-and-tumble play and socio-sexual mounting. In contrast, sex differences in other behaviour patterns, such as proximity to the mother, have been less consistantly reported. Using data on the behavioural development of infant rhesus macaques living in captive social groups, we have attempted to provide further evidence for, or against, sex differences in behaviour and to investigate the possible influence of maternal rank and parity on sex differences in infant behaviour and mother-infant interactions. The behaviour of 14 male and 20 female infants and their mothers was studied during the first six months of life, including measures of play behaviour socio-sexual mounting, and mother-infant interactions. Our data reveal that, on average, male infants exhibited more rough-and-tumble play and mounting than female infants, and also exhibited stationary play, chasing play, and initiated play more frequently than females. Such sex differences appear to be robust in macaques and have been reported in a variety of housing conditions. male and female infants did not differ in the amount of time spent at particular distances from their mothers, and mothers were not found to behave differently towards sons and daughters, using measures of restraint, rejection, and grooming. These results are in contrast to previous studies on singly-housed mother-infant pairs but similar to those on free-ranging populations. Mothers did behave differently towards their infants depending upon the mother's rank and previous number of offspring. These maternal characteristics may have significant consequences for the behavioural development of both male and female infant primates.     

Breastfeeding and infant temperament at age three months

Background & Methods

To examine the relationship between breastfeeding and maternally-rated infant temperament at age 3 months, 316 infants in the prospective Cambridge Baby Growth Study, UK had infant temperament assessed at age 3 months by mothers using the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire, which produces scores for three main dimensions of temperament derived from 14 subscales. Infant temperament scores were related to mode of infant milk feeding at age 3 months (breast only; formula milk only; or mixed) with adjustment for infant''s age at assessment and an index of deprivation.

Results

Infant temperament dimension scores differed across the three infant feeding groups, but appeared to be comparable between exclusive breast-fed and mixed-fed infants. Compared to formula milk-fed infants, exclusive breast-fed and mixed-fed infants were rated as having lower impulsivity and positive responses to stimulation (adjusted mean [95% CI] “Surgency/Extraversion” in formula-fed vs. mixed-fed vs. breast-fed groups: 4.3 [4.2–4.5] vs. 4.0 [3.8–4.1] vs. 4.0 [3.9–4.1]; p-heterogeneity = 0.0006), lower ability to regulate their own emotions (“Orienting/Regulation”: 5.1 [5.0–5.2], vs. 4.9 [4.8–5.1] vs. 4.9 [4.8–5.0]; p = 0.01), and higher emotional instability (“Negative affectivity”: 2.8 [2.6–2.9] vs. 3.0 [2.8–3.1] vs. 3.0 [2.9–3.1]; p = 0.03).

Conclusions

Breast and mixed-fed infants were rated by their mothers as having more challenging temperaments in all three dimensions; particular subscales included greater distress, less smiling, laughing, and vocalisation, and lower soothability. Increased awareness of the behavioural dynamics of breastfeeding, a better expectation of normal infant temperament and support to cope with difficult infant temperament could potentially help to promote successful breastfeeding.     

Ethnic differences in mortality from sudden infant death syndrome in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVES--To examine the factors which might explain the higher mortality from sudden infant death syndrome in Maori infants (7.4/1000 live births in 1986 compared with 3.6 in non-Maori children). DESIGN--A large nationwide case control study. SETTING--New Zealand. 485 infants who died of sudden infant death syndrome were compared with 1800 control infants. There were 229 Maori and 240 non-Maori cases of sudden infant death syndrome (16 cases unassigned) and 353 Maori and 1410 non-Maori controls (37 unassigned). RESULTS--Maori infants had 3.81 times the risk (95% confidence interval 3.06 to 4.76) of sudden infant death syndrome compared with non-Maori infants. The risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome within groups were remarkably similar. When Maori and non-Maori controls were compared the prevalence of many of the known risk factors was higher in Maori infants. In particular, mothers were socioeconomically disadvantaged, younger, and more likely to smoke and their infants were of lower birth weight and more likely to share a bed with another person. Multivariate analysis controlling for potential confounders found that simply being Maori increased the risk of sudden infant death syndrome by only 1.37 (95% CI = 0.95 to 2.01), not statistically significantly different from 1. Population attributable risk was calculated for prone sleeping position, maternal smoking, not breast feeding, and infants sharing a bed with another person. In total these four risk factors accounted for 89% of deaths from sudden infant death syndrome in Maori infants and 79% in non-Maori infants. CONCLUSION--The high rate of sudden infant death syndrome among Maori infants is based largely on the high prevalence in the Maori population of the major risk factors. Other risk factors, not related to ethnicity, probably explain remaining differences between Maori and non-Maori children.     

The effects of lactation and infant care on adult energy budgets in wild siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus)

In mammals with biparental care of offspring, males and females may bear substantial energetic costs of reproduction. Adult strategies to reduce energetic stress include changes in activity patterns, reduced basal metabolic rates, and storage of energy prior to a reproductive attempt. I quantified patterns of behavior in five groups of wild siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) to detect periods of high energetic investment by adults and to examine the relationships between infant care and adult activity patterns. For females, the estimated costs of lactation peaked at around infant age 4–6 months and were low by infant age 1 year, whereas the estimated costs of infant‐carrying peaked between ages 7 and 12 months, and approached zero by age 16 months. There was a transition from primarily female to male care in the second year of life in some groups. Females spent significantly less time feeding during lactation than during the later stages of infant care, suggesting that female siamangs do not use increased food intake to offset the costs of lactation. Female feeding time was highest between infant ages 16 and 21 months, a period of relatively low female investment in the current offspring that coincided with the period of highest male investment in infant care. This suggests that male care may reduce the costs of infant care for females in the later stages of a reproductive attempt. The female energy gain resulting from male care was likely invested in somatic maintenance and future reproduction, rather than the current offspring. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Behavioral responses of an infant gorilla to maternal separation in a captive social group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

The present report describes behavioral reactions of a 33-month-old female infant gorilla to maternal separation in a captive social group whose composition is similar to that of wild groups. The infant gorilla responded differently to two types of maternal separation. When she remained alone for a few hours, she cried repeatedly and moved restlessly, indicating protest. Upon reunion and also for a few days thereafter, an intensification of the mother-infant relationship occurred. On the other hand, when she was separated from her mother but remained with the other group members for nine days, she did not display any behaviors that could be characterized as protest, but rather showed clear behavioral depression. During the 9-day separation period, she hardly played with other group members but she developed affiliative relationships with the leading male. After the reunion from the 9-day separation, she spent as much time near her mother as before separation and played with other infants at a level similar to that before separation, while she sometimes displayed behavioral patterns demanding the maintenance of physical contact with her mother. The present findings are compared with other reports in great apes and human children.     

Systematic Examination of Infant Size and Growth Metrics as Risk Factors for Overweight in Young Adulthood

Objective

To systematically examine infant size and growth, according to the 2006 WHO infant growth standards, as risk factors for overweight status in young adulthood in a historical cohort. Specifically, to assess: Whether accounting for length (weight-for-length) provides a different picture of risk than weight-for-age, intervals of rapid growth in both weight-for-age and weight-for-length metrics, and what particular target ages for infant size and intervals of rapid growth associate most strongly with overweight as a young adult.

Patients/Methods

Data analysis of 422 appropriate for gestational age white singleton infants enrolled in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Odds ratios (OR) for overweight and obesity in young adulthood (age 20–29) were calculated using logistic regression models for the metrics at each target age (0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24 months) comparing ≥85^th v. <85^th percentile, as well as rapid growth (Δ≥0.67 Z-score) through target age intervals. Models accounted for both maternal and paternal BMI.

Results

Infants ≥85^th percentile of weight-for-age at each target age (except 3 months) had a greater odds of being overweight as a young adult. After accounting for length (weight-for-length) this association was limited to 12, and 18 months. Rapid weight-for-age growth was infrequently associated with overweight as a young adult. Rapid weight-for-length growth from 0 to 24 months, 1 to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months and from 3 to 9, 12, 18, and 24 months was strongly associated with overweight status as a young adult.

Conclusions

The WHO weight-for-length metric associates differently with risk of being overweight as a young adult compared to weight-for-age. Intervals of rapid weight-for-length growth ranging from months (0–24), (1–12, 18, and 24) and (3–9, and 12) displayed the largest OR for being overweight as a young adult.     

Focus: Microbiome: Gut Microbiome and Infant Health: Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis and Host Genetic Factors

The development of the neonatal gut microbiome is influenced by multiple factors, such as delivery mode, feeding, medication use, hospital environment, early life stress, and genetics. The dysbiosis of gut microbiota persists during infancy, especially in high-risk preterm infants who experience lengthy stays in the Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Infant microbiome evolutionary trajectory is essentially parallel with the host (infant) neurodevelopmental process and growth. The role of the gut microbiome, the brain-gut signaling system, and its interaction with the host genetics have been shown to be related to both short and long term infant health and bio-behavioral development. The investigation of potential dysbiosis patterns in early childhood is still lacking and few studies have addressed this host-microbiome co-developmental process. Further research spanning a variety of fields of study is needed to focus on the mechanisms of brain-gut-microbiota signaling system and the dynamic host-microbial interaction in the regulation of health, stress and development in human newborns.     

Preventing Obesity during Infancy: A Pilot Study

More than 20% of US children between ages 2 and 5 years are overweight suggesting efforts to prevent obesity must begin earlier. This study tested the independent and combined effects of two behavioral interventions delivered to parents, designed to promote healthy infant growth in the first year. Mother‐newborn dyads intending to breastfeed were recruited from a maternity ward. With a 2 × 2 design, 160 dyads were randomized into one of four treatment cells to receive both, one, or no interventions delivered at two nurse home visits. The first intervention (“Soothe/Sleep”) instructed parents on discriminating between hunger and other sources of infant distress. Soothing strategies were taught to minimize feeding for non‐hunger‐related fussiness and to prolong sleep duration, particularly at night. The second intervention (“Introduction of Solids”) taught parents about hunger and satiety cues, the timing for the introduction of solid foods, and how to overcome infants' initial rejection of healthy foods through repeated exposure. A total of 110 mother‐infant dyads completed the year‐long study. At 1 year, infants who received both interventions had lower weight‐for‐length percentiles (P = 0.009). Participants receiving both interventions had a mean weight‐for‐length in the 33rd percentile; in contrast, those in other study groups were higher first intervention only—50th percentile; second intervention only—56th percentile; control group—50th percentile).This suggests that multicomponent behavioral interventions may have potential for long‐term obesity prevention (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00359242).     

Rapid infant weight gain predicts childhood overweight

Objective : To determine among a contemporary cohort whether rapid weight gain between birth and 6 months is associated with risk of childhood overweight and if this risk differs by ethnicity and/or breast‐feeding history. Research Methods and Procedures : This was a cross‐sectional survey in 1999 to 2000 of parents/guardians of children participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children in New York State. Measurements were abstracted by chart review, including weight at birth and 6 months, and height and weight at time of survey and every 6 months subsequently. Overweight at 4 years of age was defined as a BMI ≥ 95th age‐ and sex‐specific percentiles. Results : The study sample was 32% Hispanic, 19% black, and 49% white; 17% of children were overweight. Rate of infant weight gain (expressed in terms of 100 g/mo) was significantly associated with being overweight at 4 years (odds ratio, 1.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3 to 1.6 after adjusting for history of breast‐feeding, birth weight, and ethnicity). The odds of being overweight at 4 years of age for Hispanic children were twice those of non‐Hispanic children (odds ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.5 to 3.3). The population‐attributable risk of overweight at 4 years of age was 19% for children in the highest quintile of infant weight gain. Discussion : Among this contemporary, multi‐ethnic cohort, rapid infant weight gain was associated with increased risk of being overweight at 4 years of age, independently of potential confounders. Identification of the risk factors contributing to rapid weight gain during infancy might improve early recognition and guide strategies for optimal nutrition to prevent the development of childhood overweight.     

Pressuring and restrictive feeding styles influence infant feeding and size among a low‐income African‐American sample

Objective:

The prevalence of overweight among infants and toddlers has increased dramatically in the past three decades, highlighting the importance of identifying factors contributing to early excess weight gain, particularly in high‐risk groups. Parental feeding styles and the attitudes and behaviors that characterize parental approaches to maintaining or modifying children's eating behavior are an important behavioral component shaping early obesity risk.

Design and Methods:

Using longitudinal data from the Infant Care and Risk of Obesity Study, a cohort study of 217 African‐American mother‐infant pairs with feeding styles, dietary recalls, and anthropometry collected from 3 to 18 months of infant age, we examined the relationship between feeding styles, infant diet, and weight‐for‐age and sum of skinfolds.

Results:

Longitudinal mixed models indicated that higher pressuring and indulgent feeding style scores were positively associated with greater infant energy intake, reduced odds of breastfeeding, and higher levels of age‐inappropriate feeding of liquids and solids, whereas restrictive feeding styles were associated with lower energy intake, higher odds of breastfeeding, and reduced odds of inappropriate feeding. Pressuring and restriction were also oppositely related to infant size with pressuring associated with lower infant weight‐for‐age and restriction with higher weight‐for‐age and sum of skinfolds. Infant size also predicted maternal feeding styles in subsequent visits indicating that the relationship between size and feeding styles is likely bidirectional.

Conclusion:

Our results suggest that the degree to which parents are pressuring or restrictive during feeding shapes the early feeding environment and, consequently, may be an important environmental factor in the development of obesity.     

Breast-feeding protects against infection in Indian infants.

A retrospective study was undertaken at two isolated Manitoba Indian communities to determine whether the type of infant feeding was related to infection during the first year of life. Of 158 infants 28 were fully breast-fed, 58 initially breast-fed and then changed to bottle-feeding and 72 fully bottle-fed. Fully bottle-fed infants were hospitalized with infectious diseases 10 times more often and spent 10 times more days in hospital during the first year of life than fully breast-fed infants. Diagnoses were mainly lower respiratory tract infection and gastroenteritis. Gastroenteritis occurred in only one breast-fed infant. Breast-feeding was strongly protective against severe infection requiring hospital admission and also against minor infection. The protective effect, which lasted even after breast-feeding was discontinued, was independent of family size, overcrowding in the home, family income and education of the parents. Measures to achieve breast-feeding for virtually all infants, particularly in northern communities, should be given high priority.     

Longitudinal observations of care and development of infant titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch)

The purpose of this study was to describe patterns of infant care and development in family groups of the monogamous titi (Callicebus moloch). Three infant titis were observed with their natal family groups over the first six months of life. Field observations of extensive male involvement with infants were confirmed. Adult males were clearly the infants' primary social companions, and infants spent more time in contact with adult males at all ages than with mothers or older siblings. However, mothers and siblings also carried infants at times and interacted with them in affiliative ways (e.g., grooming, nuzzling, play). Mothers often invited nursing, but otherwise it was infants who primarily initiated transfers between carriers and approaches to parents, reminding us that the infants' own activities and their effects on caregivers should not be overlooked in considerations of the patterns of infant care. This is particularly important for those species exhibiting extensive parental involvement by males. It is suggested that substantial male care of young titi infants leads to several important consequences for the infant's social development, including the development of a stronger attachment to the father than the mother.