鸟类取食中国沙棘果实的方式及其对种子的传播作用

2003年9月～2004年3月,定期观察取食中国沙棘果实的鸟类及其取食方式。共记录取食中国沙棘果实的鸟类18种,其取食果实的方式主要有：1)直接在树冠上吞食果实,有时候在吞食后将种子呕出;2)将果实从树上衔走后,在栖息处吞食或啄食;3)将果实啄落至地面,然后取食果肉和种子,留下果皮;4)啄破果皮,吸食果肉,留下果皮及种子;5)从顶端将果皮啄破后,仅取食里面的种子。不同的取食方式决定了它们对沙棘种子的传播作用不同。收集鸟粪便中的种子与完整的干果实及人工剥离果肉和内果皮的种子做萌发对比实验,结果表明,鸟类消化道过程对种子的萌发有一定影响,但萌发率仍较高。沙棘为多种鸟类提供食物,而鸟类则为沙棘传播种子,它们之间形成一种互利关系。     

Fruits foraging patterns and seed dispersal effect of frugivorous birds on Hippophae rhamnoides sinensis

Behaviors of 18 species of birds eating fruits of Hippophae rhamnoides spp.sinensis were observed from September 2003 to March 2004.Their foraging patterns were found to be very different and Can be divided into five classes:(1)direct swallowing the fruits on crown of the shrubs and sometimes regurgitating seeds soon after;(2)carrying the fruits to their perching sites and swallowing;(3)pecking the fruits from the shrubs to the ground,eating pulp and seeds but leaving pericarp;(4)pecking through the pericarp,eating pulp and leaving pericarp and seeds;(5)pecking through the pericarp on the top of fruits,and only eating seeds.These foraging patterns have different effects on seed dispersal of H.rhamnoides spp.sinensis.The germination experiment of three groups of seeds(seeds from feces,dry fruits and extracted seeds from dry fruits)was carried out.Although ingestion processes of birds had some adverse effects on the seed germination of H.rhamnoides spp.sinensis,the seeds from feces still have a relatively higher germination ratio.H.rhamnoides spp.sinensis provides food to a variety of frugivorous birds.and the birds disperse its seeds.Thus,a mutually beneficial relationship between the bird and the seed is formed.     

Fruits foraging patterns and seed dispersal effect of frugivorous birds on Hippophae rhamnoides sinensis

Behaviors of 18 species of birds eating fruits of Hippophae rhamnoides spp. sinensis were observed from September 2003 to March 2004. Their foraging patterns were found to be very different and can be divided into five classes: (1) direct swallowing the fruits on crown of the shrubs and sometimes regurgitating seeds soon after; (2) carrying the fruits to their perching sites and swallowing; (3) pecking the fruits from the shrubs to the ground, eating pulp and seeds but leaving pericarp; (4) pecking through the pericarp, eating pulp and leaving pericarp and seeds; (5) pecking through the pericarp on the top of fruits, and only eating seeds. These foraging patterns have different effects on seed dispersal of H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis. The germination experiment of three groups of seeds (seeds from feces, dry fruits and extracted seeds from dry fruits) was carried out. Although ingestion processes of birds had some adverse effects on the seed germination of H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis, the seeds from feces still have a relatively higher germination ratio. H. rhamnoides spp. sinensis provides food to a variety of frugivorous birds, and the birds disperse its seeds. Thus, a mutually beneficial relationship between the bird and the seed is formed. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2005, 24(6): 635–638 [译自: 生态学杂志, 2005, 24(6): 635–638]     

The role of fruit diet within a temperate breeding bird community in southern Spain

In southern temperate regions many fleshy-fruited plant species ripen their fruits during the breeding or early post-breeding season and these are consumed by resident birds. I studied the frugivore community of the summer-fruiting tree Frangula alnus ssp. baetica in southern Spain and the significance of fruit in the diet of adult and recently fledged birds. Twelve species consumed F. alnus fruits. Almost 97% of the foraging visits were carried out by the four most abundant species, Robin Erithacus rubecula, Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, Blackbird Turdus merula and Blue Tit Parus caeruleus. During the ripening season Robins and Blackcaps concentrated at fruit-rich sites. Entire families of Blackcap and Blackbird regularly entered fruiting trees together. In contrast, adult Robins always foraged solitarily, and accounted for only 4% of the tree visits, while 96% were realized by recently fledged birds of the first brood. In all species, young birds foraged as efficiently as adults. F. alnus fruits are not part of the regular nestling diet, but they are a significant part of the diet for recently fledged Robins during their postnatal dispersal. Conversely, these are the most important and effective seed dispersers while adult Robins scarcely take part in the dispersal of F. alnus seeds.     

Signals of profitability? Food colour preferences in migrating juvenile blackcaps differ for fruits and insects

Red is a common colour signal in both aposematic warning displays, and in fruit displays. One common feature is that red is conspicuous against the natural background of the prey and fruits. However, there is a potential conflict between fruits and aposematic prey in how a bird predator should react to red colours, where fruits aim to attract birds and aposematic insects aim to ward off, often the same bird individuals. Here we investigate possible differences in red/green colour preferences of frugivorous, wild-caught, young blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla), when food is either a fruit or an insect. Birds in two groups were presented with a series of pairs of food items that had been artificially painted red and green, in the order of (I) fruits, crickets and maggots, or (II) crickets, fruits, and maggots. Birds first presented with crickets or fruits differed in first attacks directed at the two colours: They showed no colour preference between fruits, but showed a clear preference for green over red crickets. Also, birds in both experimental groups clearly preferred green to red maggots. These results provide evidence that wild, frugivorous birds are able to differentiate between prey types, and show different colour preferences depending on whether food is insect or fruit. We conclude that blackcaps show an attack bias against red insects, and that one important function of the signal in insects, is to inhibit attack after discovery. However, the lack of preference for red fruits suggests other functions to red fruit displays, such as facilitating discovery per se, rather than directly stimulating attack after discovery.     

The influence of seed packaging and fruit color on feeding preferences of American robins

We investigated the role of seed packaging (division of total seed volume among individual seeds) and fruit color in determining feeding preferences of American Robins (Turdus migratorius). Experiments were conducted using artificial fruits with either 8 small plastic beads or a single large one with equivalent volume. Other fruit characters were held constant. As predicted, large seeds were voided rapidly by regurgitation, resulting in higher pulp consumption rates for large-seeded fruits than for small-seeded ones, whose seeds were passed through the gut. Most birds apparently used this difference in profitability as a choice criterion: four of seven preferred large-seeded fruits. That three individuals did not do so suggests that birds may differ in their ability to perceive minor differences in fruit profitability, or to use them as choice criteria. Pulp color was also important: blue fruits were preferred by all seven birds. This preference was surprising, since Robins commonly feed on red fruits in the field.     

Compensatory frugivory in migratory Sylvia warblers: geographical responses to season length

Seasonal shifts in the diets of Garden Warblers Sylvia borin , Blackcaps S. atricapilla and Lesser Whitethroats S. curruca at a North German site were studied from samples obtained by flushing the digestive tract of the birds. The significance of seven species of berries and pulpy fruits in the diet of these species while feeding in riparian vegetation during the premigratory and migratory seasons was assessed and compared with the pattern of frugivory shown by the same species in southern Germany. Because of the short time span between hatching and onset of migration, first-year long- and medium-distance migratory Sylvia warblers from northern Europe are forced to accelerate their juvenile development. Presumably to meet the higher nutritional demands of an accelerated development, juvenile Garden Warblers and Blackcaps in northern Germany ate relatively more fruit during premigration than Blackcaps in southern Germany. Fruit occurred in about 90% of their diet samples during both premigration and migration. However, this might not hold true for experienced adult birds. Garden Warblers accelerated the rate of fattening and reduced the time needed to prepare for migration when feeding on a mixed fruit diet. There were indications that Blackcaps directly influenced the fruit choice of Garden Warblers when fruits preferred by both species were scarce. Blackcaps and Garden Warblers showed subtle differences in their seasonal preferences for black elder Sambucus nigra and woody nightshade Solanum dulcamara .     

Fruit consumption in migratory passerines is limited by water ingestion rather than by body water balance

Many insectivorous passerines become frugivorous during migration. Because water may facilitate the digestion of dry fruits, some passerines may benefit from staging in stopover sites that offer access to drinking water. In autumn, water consumption by blackcaps Sylvia atricapilla staging in Israel was found to induce a shift from insectivory to frugivory. We tested two alternative hypotheses concerning the mechanism facilitating consumption of the relatively dry fruits which are common in this region: 1) water intake facilitates the passage of fruits within the digestive tract when these two resources are simultaneously ingested, and 2) improved body water balance allows the consumption and ingestion of large amounts of dry fruits. Blackcaps were subjected to five treatments that included temporal separation of water and fruit consumption, as well as subcutaneous water injection to maintain balanced body water in water‐deprived birds. Fruit consumption rate was measured daily. We found that only simultaneous provisioning of water and fruits significantly increased fruit consumption rate, implying that drinking water directly improves fruit digestion within the digestive system. Furthermore, the fuel deposition rate increased with increased fruit consumption rate. These results emphasize the importance of water availability for the ecology and conservation of migrating passerines.     

食肉质果鸟对种子的传播作用

食肉质果鸟对种子的传播作用鲁长虎常家传（东北林业大学,哈尔滨１５００４０）ＥｆｆｅｃｔｏｆｔｈｅＦｌｅｓｈｙ＿ｆｒｕｉｔｓＥａｔｉｎｇＢｉｒｄｓｏｎＳｅｅｄＤｉｓｐｅｒｓａｌ．ＬｕＣｈａｎｇｈｕ,ＣｈａｎｇＪｉａｃｈｕａｎ（ＮｏｒｔｈｅａｓｔＦｏ...     

黄檗的更新特点及食果实鸟类对其种子的传播

在帽儿山实验林场和哈尔滨实验林场 ,黄檗母树下没有幼苗分布 ,不能进行天然更新 ,需要靠食果实鸟类等将果实和种子传播至远离母树的其他林下。捕食黄檗果实的食果实鸟类有 9种。其中 6种是食果肉鸟类 ,吞入果实后 ,消化果肉 ,而种子完整地随粪便排出而得以传播。其余 3种是食种子鸟类 ,没有传播作用。果实在鸟类消化道内的滞留时间达 2 0～ 30min ,具有很长的潜在传播距离。将鸟类消化后的种子与完整果实和人为去果肉种子进行萌发对比实验 ,消化后种子的累计萌发率与其余二者之间均没有显著性差异 ,说明食果实鸟类的消化 (道 )过程对种子萌发没有明显影响 ,同时证明果肉对种子萌发率没有显著影响 ,果肉中不含萌发抑制物质。黄檗提供多种鸟类以食物 ,而鸟类也同时以多种肉质果植物为食物。因此食果实鸟类和肉质果植物 (包括黄檗 )之间形成了松散的互利共生关系     

The role of frugivorous birds in fruit removal and seed germination of the invasive alien Cotoneaster franchetii in central Argentina

Many invasive plant species have fleshy fruits that are eaten by native frugivorous birds which disperse their seeds and may facilitate their germination, playing an important role in plant invasion success. The fleshy‐fruited shrub Cotoneaster franchetii (Rosaceae) is an important invasive alien in the mountainous regions of central Argentina. To determine the role of avian frugivorous in fruit removal of this species, we conducted a frugivore exclusion experiment including bagged and unbagged branches in 75 plants of C. franchetii. At the end of the dispersal period, we compared the percentage of missing fruits (removed by birds + naturally dropped) in unbagged branches with the percentage of naturally dropped fruits in bagged branches. To assess whether any mechanism acting on seeds during their passage through bird guts (de‐inhibition by pulp removal and/or seed scarification) affects seed germination of this species, we compared percentage and speed of germination among seeds obtained from faeces of the native frugivorous Turdus chiguanco, from manually de‐pulped fruits, and from intact fruits. The percentage of missing fruits per shrub in unbagged branches was significantly higher than the percentage of naturally dropped fruits in bagged branches, suggesting that frugivorous birds play an important role in fruit removal of C. franchetii in the study area. Seeds from bird faeces and from manually de‐pulped fruits germinated in higher percentage and faster than seeds from intact fruits. Germination percentage and speed of seeds from manually de‐pulped fruits were significantly higher than those of gut‐passed seeds. These results indicate that T. chiguanco increases and accelerates seed germination of C. franchetii through pulp removal, but not through seed scarification. Overall, our findings indicate that native frugivorous birds facilitate the dispersal and germination success of C. franchetii, likely playing an important role in its invasion throughout the mountainous region of central Argentina.     

都江堰林区取食樱桃果实(种子)的鸟类及其种子扩散作用

樱桃(Prunus pseudocerasus)是广泛分布于我国亚热带常绿阔叶林内的一种重要核果植物。为了解食果鸟类在樱桃种群更新中的作用,于2007年和2008年在四川都江堰亚热带常绿阔叶林内研究了取食樱桃果实(种子)的鸟类及其种子扩散作用。研究表明,樱桃成熟果实的下落高峰发生在4月下旬至5月上旬;2007年的种子扩散率为4.0%±1.0%,明显低于2008年(27.7%±5.7%)。在研究地内,发现至少有16种鸟取食樱桃果实或种子,根据其对果实和种子的处理方式分为3个功能群:白头鹎(Pycnontus sinensis)、领雀嘴鹎(Spizixos semitorques)、黑鹎(Hypisipetes leucocephalus)、白颊噪鹛(Garrulax snnio)、红嘴蓝鹊(Urocissa erythorhyncha)等10种鸟吞食樱桃果实,而种子通过消化道末端排出并将种子携至远离母树的地方,是重要的种子扩散者;暗绿绣眼鸟(Alcippe morrisonia)和灰眶雀鹛(Zosterops iaponicus)等4种鸟主要啄食果肉而将种子丢弃在母树下,为啄食果肉者;而普通朱雀(Carpopacus erythrinus)和灰头鸦雀(Paradoxornis gularis)则主要取食种子,为纯粹的种子捕食者。在吞食樱桃果实的食果鸟中,3种鹎科鸟类访问频次所占的比例达55.3%(2007年)和35.3%(2008年),说明鹎科鸟类是都江堰林区樱桃种子的主要扩散者,对樱桃种群的空间格局和自然更新可能有重要影响。     

Morphological cladistic analysis of eight popular Olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars grown in Saudi Arabia using Numerical Taxonomic System for personal computer to detect phyletic relationship and their proximate fruit composition

Varietal identification of olives is an intrinsic and empirical exercise owing to the large number of synonyms and homonyms, intensive exchange of genotypes, presence of varietal clones and lack of proper certification in nurseries. A comparative study of morphological characters of eight olive cultivars grown in Saudi Arabia was carried out and analyzed using NTSYSpc (Numerical Taxonomy System for personal computer) system segregated smaller fruits in one clade and the rest in two clades. Koroneiki, a Greek cultivar with a small sized fruit shared arm with Spanish variety Arbosana. Morphologic analysis using NTSYSpc revealed that biometrics of leaves, fruits and seeds are reliable morphologic characters to distinguish between varieties, except for a few morphologically very similar olive cultivars. The proximate analysis showed significant variations in the protein, fiber, crude fat, ash and moisture content of different cultivars. The study also showed that neither the size of fruit nor the fruit pulp thickness is a limiting factor determining crude fat content of olives.     

BIRD-DISPERSAL OF PHYTOLACCA AMERICANA L. AND THE INFLUENCE OF FRUIT REMOVAL ON SUBSEQUENT FRUIT DEVELOPMENT

Characteristics of fruits, seeds, and ripening of Phytolacca americana were studied in New Jersey, USA to assess their importance in the dispersal strategy of this species. Removal by birds was directly related to the percent of ripe fruits available on a raceme. Fruit removal from a raceme resulted in lower fruit pulp and seed weights for fruits developing on the same raceme, but these differences probably do not influence probability for dispersal by birds. We demonstrate that characteristics of the fruit pulp may decrease seed availability for the primary seed predator, Peromyscus leucopus, and increase the time fruits are available for dispersal. We speculate on the significance of the sequential fruiting in Phytolacca and the relationship to availability of dispersal agents and high-lipid fruits. Sequential ripening and protection from predation result in seed dispersal from late August to early December.     

Do frugivorous birds concentrate their foraging activities on those alien plants with the most abundant and nutritious fruits in the South African Mediterranean-climate region?

Alien plants with abundant and nutritious fruits may compete more effectively for avian dispersal services than native shrubs. This premise was examined by comparing daily foraging activity (visitation frequency, foraging bird number and foraging period) by four frugivorous bird species of different size on fruits of two native and two alien shrub species co-occurring at four different sites. Also, the quantities of seeds consumed daily by each of the four birds species from fruits of the four shrub species were measured and compared with the numbers of fruits and seeds, and the mass of fruits present in the shrub canopies as well as with their fruit monosaccharide concentrations. The quantities of seed consumed daily by four different size bird species (Columba arquatrix, Colius striatus, Pycnonotus capensis, Zosterops pallidus subsp capensis) were positively correlated with the numbers of seeds per m² of canopy area and with fruit mass and fruit monosaccharide content per m² of canopy area, as well as with the monosaccharide concentration of individual fruits, except in the C. arquatrix (African olive pigeon). All four bird species displayed the highest daily visitation frequencies on fruits of the alien Solanum mauritianum which were more abundant and nutritious than fruits of the other alien Lantana camara and fruits the natives Olea europaea subsp africana and Chrysanthemoides monilifera. They also all consumed greater quantities of seed daily from fruits of the alien S. mauritianum than from fruits of the other shrub species. These results corroborate proposals that frugivorous birds concentrate their foraging activities on those alien plants with the most abundant and nutritious fruits.     

Exclusive frugivory and seed dispersal of Rhamnus alaternus in the bird breeding season

We studied avian frugivory and seed dispersal in a dioecious shrub, Rhamnus alaternus, focusing on the quantitative and qualitative components of effectiveness. The study took place at three locations in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, and examined bird behaviour, intensity of feeding, and the consequences for seedling emergence. The coincidence between the bird breeding season and fruit ripening of R. alaternus in the absence of other ripe fruit, generates a monospecific interaction. The extant frugivorous species were mainly legitimate seed dispersers and their abundance was low. Sylvia melanocephala and S. undata were the most important at one site whereas S. atricapilla, Erithacus rubecula and Turdus merula predominated at the other two sites. Fruit handling took place directly on the branches. Bird species used microhabitats differently as first post-feeding perch, which usually was a short distance away. The low density of frugivorous birds in all localities, among others factors, resulted in satiation of the disperser community and many mature fruits unconsumed. Both adults and juveniles feed upon the plants and their foraging patterns are similar. Adults of S. melanocephala were observed to feed fruit to nestlings and consequently a second phase of dispersal potentially arises from the transport of fecal sacs. Pulp removal and passage through the digestive tract increased the probability of seedling emergence. This plant-dispersal interaction has important consequences, both positive and negative for the plant. Positively, the fruiting of R. alaternus at a time when other ripe fruits are not available avoids interspecific competition for seed dispersers. In addition, a low density of seed rain may reduce intraspecific competition. Negatively, the low density and small size of the breeding frugivorous bird community limit fruit handling and removal away from the parent plants, while the territorial behaviour of birds at that time of the year reduces the potential distances of seed dispersal.     

Crop size is more important than neighborhood fruit availability for fruit removal of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eugenia uniflora</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae) by bird seed dispersers

For a plant with bird-dispersed seeds, the effectiveness of seed dispersal can change with fruit availability at scales ranging from individual plants to neighborhoods, and the scale at which frugivory patterns emerge may be specific for frugivorous species differing in their life-history and behavior. The authors explore the influence of multispecies fruit availability at two local spatial scales on fruit consumption of Eugenia uniflora trees for two functional groups of birds. The authors related visitation and fruit removal by fruit gulpers and pulp mashers to crop size and conspecific and heterospecific fruit abundance to assess the potential roles that facilitative or competitive interactions play on seed dispersal. The same fruiting scenario influenced fruit gulpers (legitimate seed dispersers) and pulp mashers (inefficient dispersers) in different ways. Visits and fruit removal by legitimate seed dispersers were positively related to crop size and slightly related to conspecific, but not to heterospecific fruit neighborhoods. Visits and fruit consumption by pulp mashers was not related to crop size and decreased with heterospecific fruit availability in neighborhoods; however, this might not result in competition for dispersers. The weak evidence for facilitative or competitive processes suggest that interaction of E. uniflora with seed dispersers may depend primarily on crop size or other plant’s attributes susceptible to selection. The results give limited support to the hypothesis that spatial patterns of fruit availability influence fruit consumption by birds, and highlight the importance of considering separately legitimate and inefficient dispersers to explain the mechanisms that lie behind spatial patterns of seed dispersal.     

Interaction between juniper Juniperus communis L. and its fruit pest insects: Pest abundance, fruit characteristics and seed viability

The relationships between the fruit features of Juniperus communis and the presence of fruit pests were studied in Sierra Nevada, SE Spain. The abundance of two insect species — a pulp-sucking scale and a seed-predator wasp — was surveyed with respect both to fruit characteristics and to viability of seeds contained therein. Seed-predator pressure was not significantly related to any fruit characteristics; however, pulp suckers tended to be more abundant in plants with low pulp: seed ratios and high fruit-water content. In addition, fruits with high levels of pulp-sucker attack tended to have higher water content. A multi-factor ANOVA, considering the identity of the plant and the attack of the different pests as factors, showed that plant identity accounts for most of the variation in fruit characteristics. The viability of seeds tended to be lower in plants strongly attacked by both pests. Fruits attacked by seed predators showed significantly lower proportions of viable and unviable seeds than did unattacked fruits. Seed viability was also lower in those fruits heavily attacked by pulp suckers, but this pattern is strongly mediated by plant identity. Pest activity proved to be clearly associated with a direct decrease in juniper reproductive capacity. This loss involved a reduction of the viable-seed number, mainly related to the seed predator, as well as a reduction of fruit attractiveness to frugivorous dispersers, related to the pulp sucker.     

Directed vertebrate-mediated seed dispersal of a fleshy-fruited amaryllid in a heterogenous habitat

Most plants with fleshy fruits have seeds that are ingested by animals, but a less well-understood mode of seed dispersal involves fleshy fruits containing seeds that are discarded by frugivorous animals because they are too large or toxic to be ingested. We studied the seed dispersal biology of Haemanthus deformis, an amaryllid lily species found in a mosaic of bush clumps in a grassland matrix in South Africa. We asked whether seed dispersal is directed in and among bush clumps and whether germination and survival are greater for seeds dispersed to bush clumps than for those dispersed into grassland. Using camera trapping, we found that fruits are consumed mainly by birds and rodents. The pulp was removed from the seeds which were then discarded without ingestion. While many seeds were dispersed close to the parent plant, most (c. 78.5%) were dispersed further than 1 m away from the parent plant. Longer distance dispersal resulted mainly from birds flying off with fruits in their bill or from rodents engaging in scatter-hoarding behavior. Seedling survival was most successful within bush clumps as compared to grasslands and shade was identified as a primary requirement for seedling survival. Seeds from which the fruit pulp had been removed germinated faster than those in intact fruits. Haemanthus deformis deploys a system of directed seed dispersal, whereby both birds and rodents contribute to the dispersal of seeds within patchy bush clumps that are favorable for seedling survival.     

The role of fruit traits of bird-dispersed plants in invasiveness and weed risk assessment

Aim  Birds play a major role in the dispersal of seeds of many fleshy-fruited invasive plants. The fruits that birds choose to consume are influenced by fruit traits. However, little is known of how the traits of invasive plant fruits contribute to invasiveness or to their use by frugivores. We aim to gain a greater understanding of these relationships to improve invasive plant management.
Location  South-east Queensland, Australia.
Methods  We measure a variety of fruit morphology, pulp nutrient and phenology traits of a suite of bird-dispersed alien plants. Frugivore richness of these aliens was derived from the literature. Using regressions and multivariate methods, we investigate relationships between fruit traits, frugivore richness and invasiveness.
Results  Plant invasiveness was negatively correlated to fruit size, and all highly invasive species had quite similar fruit morphology [smaller fruits, seeds of intermediate size and few (< 10) seeds per fruit]. Lower pulp water was the only pulp nutrient trait associated with invasiveness. There were strong positive relationships between the diversity of bird frugivores and plant invasiveness, and in the diversity of bird frugivores in the study region and another part of the plants' alien range.
Main conclusions  Our results suggest that weed risk assessments (WRA) and predictions of invasive success for bird-dispersed plants can be improved. Scoring criteria for WRA regarding fruit size would need to be system-specific, depending on the fruit-processing capabilities of local frugivores. Frugivore richness could be quantified in the plant's natural range, its invasive range elsewhere, or predictions made based on functionally similar fruits.