Independent origins of the feather lice (Insecta: Degeeriella) of raptors

Although diurnal birds of prey have historically been placed in a single order due to a number of morphological characters, recent molecular phylogenies have suggested that this is a case of convergence rather than homology, with hawks (Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae) forming two distantly related groups within birds. The feather lice of birds have often been used as a model for comparing host and parasite phylogenies, and in some cases there is significant congruence between the two. Thus, studying the phylogeny of the lice of diurnal raptors may be of particular interest with respect to the independent evolution of hawks vs. falcons. Using one mitochondrial gene and three nuclear genes, we inferred a phylogeny for the feather louse genus Degeeriella (which are all obligate raptor ectoparasites) and related genera. This phylogeny indicated that Degeeriella is polyphyletic, with lice from falcons vs. hawks forming two distinct clades. Falcon lice were sister to lice from African woodpeckers, whereas Capraiella, a genus of lice from rollers lice, was embedded within Degeeriella from hawks. This phylogeny showed significant geographical structure, with host geography playing a larger role than host taxonomy in explaining louse phylogeny, particularly within clades of closely related lice. However, the louse phylogeny does reflect host phylogeny at a broad scale; for example, lice from the hawk genus Accipiter form a distinct clade. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 837–847.     

Lousy grouse: Comparing evolutionary patterns in Alaska galliform lice to understand host evolution and host–parasite interactions

Understanding both sides of host–parasite relationships can provide more complete insights into host and parasite biology in natural systems. For example, phylogenetic and population genetic comparisons between a group of hosts and their closely associated parasites can reveal patterns of host dispersal, interspecies interactions, and population structure that might not be evident from host data alone. These comparisons are also useful for understanding factors that drive host–parasite coevolutionary patterns (e.g., codivergence or host switching) over different periods of time. However, few studies have compared the evolutionary histories between multiple groups of parasites from the same group of hosts at a regional geographic scale. Here, we used genomic data to compare phylogenomic and population genomic patterns of Alaska ptarmigan and grouse species (Aves: Tetraoninae) and two genera of their associated feather lice: Lagopoecus and Goniodes. We used whole‐genome sequencing to obtain hundreds of genes and thousands of single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for the lice and double‐digest restriction‐associated DNA sequences to obtain SNPs from Alaska populations of two species of ptarmigan. We found that both genera of lice have some codivergence with their galliform hosts, but these relationships are primarily characterized by host switching and phylogenetic incongruence. Population structure was also uncorrelated between the hosts and lice. These patterns suggest that grouse, and ptarmigan in particular, share habitats and have likely had historical and ongoing dispersal within Alaska. However, the two genera of lice also have sufficient dissimilarities in the relationships with their hosts to suggest there are other factors, such as differences in louse dispersal ability, that shape the evolutionary patterns with their hosts.     

Phylogenomics and host-switching patterns of Philopteridae (Psocodea: Phthiraptera) feather lice

Philopteridae feather lice are a group of ectoparasitic insects which have intimate relationships with their avian hosts. Feather lice include an enormous number of described species; however, the relationships of major lineages have been clouded by homoplasious characters due to convergent evolution. In this study, a comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of the group is performed which includes 137 feather louse species. Several other analyses are also completed including dating analysis, cophylogenetic reconstructions, and ancestral character estimation to understand the evolution of complex morphological and ecological traits. Phylogenetic results recover high support for the placement of major feather louse lineages, but with lower support for long-branched enigmatic genera found at the base of the tree. The results of dating analyses suggest modern feather lice began to diversify approximately 49 million years ago following the adaptive radiation of their avian hosts. Cost-based cophylogenetic reconstructions recover a high frequency of host switching, while congruence-based methods indicate a significant level of congruence between host and parasite trees. Ancestral state reconstructions favour a generalist ancestor and water bird host at the root. The analyses completed provide insight into the evolution of a diverse group of ectoparasitic insects which infest a wide variety of avian hosts. The results represent the most comprehensive phylogenetic hypothesis of the group to date and provide a framework for future classification of the family into natural groupings.     

Linking coevolutionary history to ecological process: doves and lice

Abstract Many host-specific parasites are restricted to a limited range of host species by ecological barriers that impede dispersal and successful establishment. In some cases, microevolutionary differentiation is apparent on top of host specificity, as evidenced by significant parasite population genetic structure among host populations. Ecological barriers responsible for specificity and genetic structure can, in principle, reinforce macroevolutionary processes that generate congruent host-parasite phylogenies. However, few studies have explored both the micro- and macroevolutionary ramifications of close association in a single host-parasite system. Here we compare the macroevolutionary histories of two genera of feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) that both parasitize New World pigeons and doves (Aves: Columbiformes). Earlier work has shown that dove body lice (genus Physconelloides ) are more host specific and have greater population genetic structure than dove wing lice ( Columbicola ). We reconstructed phylogenies for representatives of the two genera of lice and their hosts, using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. The phylogenies were well resolved and generally well supported. We compared the phylogenies of body lice and wing lice to the host phylogeny using reconciliation analyses. We found that dove body lice show strong evidence of cospeciation whereas dove wing lice do not. Although the ecology of body and wing lice is very similar, differences in their dispersal ability may underlie these joint differences in host specificity, population genetic structure, and coevolutionary history.     

Molecular systematics of Goniodidae (Insecta: Phthiraptera)

The higher level phylogenetic relationships within the avian feather lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) are extremely problematic. Here we investigate the relationships of 1 family (Goniodidae), sometimes recognized as distinct within Ischnocera, using parsimony and likelihood analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. These data support monophyly for a restricted definition of traditional Goniodidae, but recognition of this family would result in paraphyly of the large heterogeneous family Philopteridae. We show that the New World Chelopistes is not related to other members of Goniodidae, despite similarities in morphology, but rather is the sister taxon to Oxylipeurus. Within Goniodidae, genera are divided into those occurring on Galliformes (the Goniodes complex) and those occurring on Columbiformes (the Coloceras complex). Within the well-sampled Coloceras complex, or Physconelloidinae, several groups are identified. However, traditionally recognized genera such as Coloceras and Phvsconelloides appear to be paraphyletic. Whereas the phylogeny of Goniodidae reflects some aspects of host relationships, biogeography also influences coevolutionary history.     

Body size and fecundity are correlated in feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): implications for Harrison's rule

1. Harrison's rule, which predicts that large‐bodied species of hosts have large‐bodied species of parasites, has been documented in a wide diversity of parasites. 2. Harrison's rule has been most thoroughly studied in avian feather lice, which escape from host defence (preening) by hiding in the feathers. Lice that are unable to hide are selectively removed by preening. Preening selects for small lice on small hosts, which have small feathers in which to hide. 3. Preening should not, however, select for large lice on large hosts. Instead, the larger size of lice on large hosts is thought to result from a positive relationship between size and fecundity, as shown for many other insects. 4. This study tested for a size–fecundity correlation within Columbicola columbae, the host‐specific ‘wing louse’ of rock pigeons (Columba livia). 5. The results confirm a positive relationship between female body length and number of eggs laid. 6. The study thus supports a mechanism consistent with stabilising selection leading to the evolution of the Harrison's rule pattern among species of Columbicola and their hosts.     

Cophylogenetic analysis of lice in the Colpocephalum complex (Phthiraptera: Amblycera)

The chewing louse genus Colpocephalum parasitizes nearly a dozen distantly related orders of birds. Such a broad host distribution is relatively unusual in lice. However, the monophyly of the genus Colpocephalum has never been tested using molecular characters. Using one nuclear and one mitochondrial gene, we inferred a phylogeny for 54 lice from the genus Colpocephalum and other morphologically similar genera. The resulting phylogeny demonstrates that Colpocephalum itself is not monophyletic. However, these data support the existence of a Colpocephalum complex within which several lineages are restricted to particular host orders. These lineages corresponded to previously described genera, some of which are morphologically distinct and currently considered subgenera. Maddison–Slatkin tests were performed on the resulting phylogeny and showed that host order, host family and biogeographic region had significant phylogenetic signal when mapped onto the Colpocephalum complex phylogeny. A PARAFIT analysis comparing the overall Colpocephalum complex phylogeny to a host phylogeny revealed significant congruence between host and parasite trees. We also compared the cophylogenetic history of Colpocephalum and their hosts to that of a second distantly related feather louse genus, Degeeriella, which also infests diurnal birds of prey. Using PARAFIT to identify individual host–parasite links that contributed to overall congruence, there was no evidence of correlated cophylogenetic patterns between these two louse groups, suggesting that their host distribution patterns have been shaped by different evolutionary processes.     

Patterns of host–parasite associations in tropical lice and their passerine hosts in Cameroon

Coevolutionary processes that drive the patterns of host–parasite associations can be deduced through congruence analysis of their phylogenies. Feather lice and their avian hosts have previously been used as typical model systems for congruence analysis; however, such analyses are strongly biased toward nonpasserine hosts in the temperate zone. Further, in the Afrotropical region especially, cospeciation studies of lice and birds are entirely missing. This work supplements knowledge of host–parasite associations in lice using cospeciation analysis of feather lice (genus Myrsidea and the Brueelia complex) and their avian hosts in the tropical rainforests of Cameroon. Our analysis revealed a limited number of cospeciation events in both parasite groups. The parasite–host associations in both louse groups were predominantly shaped by host switching. Despite a general dissimilarity in phylogeny for the parasites and hosts, we found significant congruence in host–parasite distance matrices, mainly driven by associations between Brueelia lice and passerine species of the Waxbill (Estrildidae) family, and Myrsidea lice and their Bulbul (Pycnonotidae) host species. As such, our study supports the importance of complex biotic interactions in tropical environments.     

Western Palaearctic phylogeography of an inquiline oak gall wasp,Synergus umbraculus

Insect‐induced galls on plants comprise species‐rich but self‐contained communities of herbivores and natural enemies. In the present study, we focus on galls induced by cynipid gall wasps on oaks, and on the least‐known trophic level that these galls contain: inquilines. These insects, also cynipids, feed on gall tissue and are an abundant but taxonomically poorly understood part of an otherwise well‐studied system. We used DNA sequence data to examine spatial patterns in the genetic diversity of Synergus umbraculus Olivier 1791 (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Synergini), a widespread species attacking many host galls across the Western Palaearctic. Analysis of 239 cytochrome b sequences revealed eight haplogroups showing significant phylogeographic pattern across the Western Palaearctic, corresponding to putative glacial refugia in Iberia, Central Europe, Turkey, and Iran. There were significant genetic discontinuities across the Pyrenees and the Anatolian diagonal but no impact of the Alps, suggesting that significant discontinuities have biotic rather than physical causes. Detailed analysis of sites in the Carpathian Basin reveal a high diversity and low spatial structure, and identify Central Europe as the source of colonists for Quaternary colonization of Germany, France, and Britain. We found no evidence for host‐associated differentiation of S. umbraculus lineages associated with the most common cynipid host galls, suggesting frequent shifts within the host gall assemblage by inquiline lineages. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 102 , 750–764.     

Basal ischnoceran louse phylogeny (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae)

A phylogenetic analysis of generic relationships for avian chewing lice of families Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) is presented. These lice, hosted by galliform, columbiform and tinamiform birds are reputedly basal in the phylogeny of Ischnocera. A cladistic analysis of sixty‐two adult morphological characters from thirty‐one taxa revealed thirty equally parsimonious cladograms. The phylogeny is well resolved within Heptap‐sogasteridae and supports the monophyly of subfamily Strongylocotinae (sensu Eichler 1963 ). Resolution within Goniodidae is lower but suggests that the genera hosted by Columbiformes are largely monophyletic. Mapping host taxonomy on to the phylogeny of the lice reveals a consistent pattern which is largely congruent down to the rank of host family, although at lower taxonomic levels the association appears to be more complex. The inclusion of more louse taxa may help considerably to unravel the coevolutionary history of both the hosts and their parasites.     

Tracing the origins of widespread highland species: a case of Neogene diversification across the Mexican sierras in an endemic lizard

The evolutionary history of the Mexican sierras has been shaped by various geological and climatic events over the past several million years. The relative impacts of these historical events on diversification in highland taxa, however, remain largely uncertain owing to a paucity of studies on broadly‐distributed montane species. We investigated the origins of genetic diversification in widely‐distributed endemic alligator lizards in the genus Barisia to help develop a better understanding of the complex processes structuring biological diversity in the Mexican highlands. We estimated lineage divergence dates and the diversification rate from mitochondrial DNA sequences, and combined divergence dates with reconstructions of ancestral geographical ranges to track lineage diversification across geography through time. Based on our results, we inferred ten geographically structured, well supported mitochondrial lineages within Barisia. Diversification of a widely‐distributed ancestor appears tied to the formation of the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt across central Mexico during the Miocene and Pliocene. The formation of filter barriers such as major river drainages may have later subdivided lineages. The results of the present study provide additional support for the increasing number of studies that suggest Neogene events heavily impacted genetic diversification in widespread montane taxa. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 382–394.     

The wheat curl mite Aceria tosichella (Acari: Eriophyoidea) is a complex of cryptic lineages with divergent host ranges: evidence from molecular and plant bioassay data

Aceria tosichella (the wheat curl mite, WCM) is a global pest of wheat and other cereals, causing losses by direct damage, as well as the transmission of plant viruses. The mite is considered to have an unusually wide host range for an eriophyoid species. The present study tested the commonly held assumption that WCM is a single, highly polyphagous species by assessing the host range of genetically distinct lineages of WCM occurring in Poland on different host plants. Genotyping was performed by analyzing nucleotide sequence data from fragments of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear D2 region of 28S rDNA. Mean between‐lineage distance estimated using COI data was found to be one order of magnitude greater than the within‐clade lineage and, in some cases, comparable to distances between WCM lineages and a congeneric outgroup species. Host acceptance was tested by quantifying population growth for different WCM mitochondrial (mt)DNA lineages when transferred from source host plants to test plants. These experiments revealed significant differences in host colonization ability between mtDNA lineages, ranging from highly polyphagous to more host‐specific. The present study reveals that WCM is composed of several discrete genetic lineages with divergent host‐acceptance and specificity traits. Genetic variation for host acceptance within A. tosichella s.l. may act as a reproductive barrier between these lineages, most of which had narrow host ranges. Two lineages appear to have high pest potential on cereals, whereas several others appear to specialize on wild grass species. We conclude that WCM is not a homogeneous species comprising polyphagous panmictic populations rather it is a complex of genetically distinct lineages with variable host ranges and therefore variable pest potential. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 165–180.     

Phoretic dispersal influences parasite population genetic structure

Dispersal is a fundamental component of the life history of most species. Dispersal influences fitness, population dynamics, gene flow, genetic drift and population genetic structure. Even small differences in dispersal can alter ecological interactions and trigger an evolutionary cascade. Linking such ecological processes with evolutionary patterns is difficult, but can be carried out in the proper comparative context. Here, we investigate how differences in phoretic dispersal influence the population genetic structure of two different parasites of the same host species. We focus on two species of host‐specific feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) that co‐occur on feral rock pigeons (Columba livia). Although these lice are ecologically very similar, “wing lice” (Columbicola columbae) disperse phoretically by “hitchhiking” on pigeon flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), while “body lice” (Campanulotes compar) do not. Differences in the phoretic dispersal of these species are thought to underlie observed differences in host specificity, as well as the degree of host–parasite cospeciation. These ecological and macroevolutionary patterns suggest that body lice should exhibit more genetic differentiation than wing lice. We tested this prediction among lice on individual birds and among lice on birds from three pigeon flocks. We found higher levels of genetic differentiation in body lice compared to wing lice at two spatial scales. Our results indicate that differences in phoretic dispersal can explain microevolutionary differences in population genetic structure and are consistent with macroevolutionary differences in the degree of host–parasite cospeciation.     

Rodent louse diversity,phylogeny, and cospeciation in the Manu Biosphere Reserve,Peru

We investigated the diversity, cophylogenetic relationships, and biogeography of hoplopleurid sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura) parasitizing rodents (Muridae: Sigmodontinae) in the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve. Our morphological and molecular studies reveal that 15 distinct louse species parasitize 19 rodent species. Three of these louse species are new to science, and all but two of the host associations were previously unknown. We find that hoplopleurid lice in South America parasitize multiple host species across a large geographic area, and that Peru represents a new geographic locality for almost all the louse species collected in the present study. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear data reveal that the louse family Hoplopleuridae and the genera Hoplopleura and Pterophthirus are not monophyletic, and lice do not appear to group by host tribe, collecting locality, or collection elevation. The lack of monophyly for these apparently natural groups (taxonomic, locality, and elevation) indicates that host switching with or without parasite speciation may be prevalent among hoplopleurid lice. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95 , 598–610.     

Cophylogenetic patterns are uncorrelated between two lineages of parasites on the same hosts

Free‐living organisms are often host to multiple lineages of closely related parasites. Different lineages of obligate parasites living on the same hosts might potentially be expected to display similar cophylogenetic patterns. However, there are also reasons why these lineages might have different evolutionary histories (e.g. host switching, host geography). In the present study, we use mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data to evaluate the cophylogenetic patterns between doves and their wing and body lice. Previous studies have found that the wing and body lice of doves have different levels of congruence between their phylogenetic histories. However, these studies are limited in scope, either taxonomically or geographically. We used both new and existing data to generate a worldwide and taxonomically diverse data set for doves and two independent groups of lice: wing and body lice. Using event and topology‐based methods, we found that cophylogenetic patterns were not correlated between wing and body lice, even though both groups showed evidence of cospeciation with their hosts. These results indicate that external factors vary in their impact on different groups of parasites and also that broad sampling is critical for identifying patterns in cophylogenetic analyses.     

Evolutionary relationships among copies of feather beta ({beta}) keratin genes from several avian orders

The feather beta (β) keratins of the white leghorn chicken (order Galliformes, Gallus gallus domesticus) are the products of a multigene family that includes claw, feather, feather-like, and scale genes (Presland et al. 1989a). Here we characterize the feather β-keratin genes in additional bird species. We designed primers for polymerase chain reactions (PCR) using sequences available from chicken, cloned the resulting amplicons to isolate individual copies, and sequenced multiple clones from each PCR reaction for which we obtained amplicons of the expected size. Feather β-keratins of 18 species from eight avian orders demonstrate DNA sequence variation within and among taxa, even in the protein-coding regions of the genes. Phylogenies of these data suggest that Galliformes (fowl-like birds), Psittaciformes (parrots), and possibly Falconiformes (birds of prey) existed as separate lineages before duplication of the feather β-keratin gene began in Ciconiiformes (herons, storks, and allies), Gruiformes (cranes, rails, and allies), and Piciformes (woodpeckers and allies). Sequences from single species of Coraciiformes (kingfishers) and Columbiformes (pigeons) are monophyletic and strikingly divergent, suggesting feather β-keratin genes in these birds also diverged after these species last shared a common ancestor with the other taxa investigated. Overall, these data demonstrate considerable variation in this structural protein in the relatively recent history of birds, and raise questions concerning the origin and homology of claw, feather-like, and scale β-keratins of birds and the reptilian β-keratins.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Forcipulatacea (Asteroidea: Echinodermata): systematics and biogeography

We present a comprehensively sampled three‐gene phylogeny of the monophyletic Forcipulatacea, one of three major lineages within the crown‐group Asteroidea. We present substantially more Southern Hemisphere and deep‐sea taxa than were sampled in previous molecular studies of this group. Morphologically distinct groups, such as the Brisingida and the Zoroasteridae, are upheld as monophyletic. Brisingida is supported as the derived sister group to the Asteriidae (restricted), rather than as a basal taxon. The Asteriidae is paraphyletic, and is broken up into the Stichasteridae and four primary asteriid clades: (1) a highly diverse boreal clade, containing members from the Arctic and sub‐Arctic in the Northern Hemisphere; (2) the genus Sclerasterias; (3) and (4) two sister clades that contain asteriids from the Antarctic and pantropical regions. The Stichasteridae, which was regarded as a synonym of the Asteriidae, is resurrected by our results, and represents the most diverse Southern Hemisphere forcipulatacean clade (although two deep‐sea stichasterid genera occur in the Northern Hemisphere). The Labidiasteridae is artificial, and should be synonymized into the Heliasteridae. The Pedicellasteridae is paraphyletic, with three separate clades containing pedicellasterid taxa emerging among the basal Forcipulatacea. Fossils and timing estimates from species‐level phylogeographic studies are consistent with prior phylogenetic hypotheses for the Forcipulatacea, suggesting diversification of basal taxa in the early Mesozoic, with some evidence for more widely distributed ranges from Cretacous taxa. Our analysis suggests a hypothesis of an older fauna present in the Antarctic during the Eocene, which was succeeded by a modern Antarctic fauna that is represented by the recently derived Antarctic Asteriidae and other forcipulatacean lineages. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 162 , 646–660.     

When do parasites fail to speciate in response to host speciation?

Cospeciation generally increases the similarity between host and parasite phylogenies. Incongruence between host and parasite phylogenies has previously been explained in terms of host switching, sorting, and duplication events. Here, we describe an additional process, failure of the parasite to speciate in response to host speciation, that may be important in some host-parasite systems. Failure to speciate is likely to occur when gene flow among parasite populations is much higher than that of their hosts. We reconstructed trees from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences for pigeons and doves (Aves: Columbiformes) and their feather lice in the genus Columbicola (Insecta: Phthiraptera). Although comparisons of the trees from each group revealed a significant amount of cospeciation, there was also a significant degree of incongruence. Cophylogenetic analyses generally indicated that host switching may be an important process in the history of this host-parasite association. Using terminal sister taxon comparisons, we also identified three apparent cases where the host has speciated but the associated parasite has not. In two of these cases of failure to speciate, these comparisons involve allopatric sister taxa of hosts whose lice also occur on hosts sympatric with both of the allopatric sisters. These additional hosts for generalist lice may promote gene flow with lice on the allopatric sister species. Relative rate comparisons for the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene indicate that molecular substitution occurs about 11 times faster in lice than in their avian hosts.     

Coevolution between the large hawk‐cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides) and its two sympatric Leiothrichidae hosts: evidence for recent expansion and switch in host use?

Obligate brood parasites only account for 1% of birds in the world, but utilize a great variety of avian species as hosts. Host switch theory predicts that parasites should shift from one host to another during the long‐term arms race with hosts whenever such a shift would be facilitated by similarity in ecology and distribution. However, few studies have been conducted to address this puzzle because it is extremely difficult for humans to witness such host shifts during the long‐lasting process of evolution. Here we adopted an alternative way to understand host switch behaviour of brood parasites by comparing egg colour variation, cuckoo egg mimicry and egg recognition capacity between two sympatric hosts, the Chinese babax (Babax lanceolatus) and the white‐browed laughing thrush (Garrulax sannio), which are both parasitized by the large hawk‐cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides). The babax lays dark blue eggs whilst the laughing thrush lays white to pale blue eggs, and the large hawk‐cuckoo parasitizes them by laying eggs that optimally match laughing thrush eggs according to avian vision. The laughing thrush possesses a greater capacity of egg recognition than the babax because it rejected all non‐mimetic eggs while the babax is an intermediate rejecter. Furthermore, all the nest characteristics measured were similar in these two host species with no statistical significant differences. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the white‐browed laughing thrush is the original and main host species that has a longer coevolutionary interaction with the large hawk‐cuckoo than the Chinese babax, which is a recent host acquired through a host switch by the hawk‐cuckoo. We discuss the possible outcome of the interaction between the large hawk‐cuckoo and these two host species, and emphasize that host switch behaviour in brood parasites is more likely an adaptation to expand the range of host species rather than a change in host species favoring an increase in reproductive output. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, ●● , ●●–●●.