Asperula calabra (Rubiaceae) and allied taxa in southern Apennines,Italy

The present work is aimed at studying several Asperula (Rubiaceae) sect. Cynanchicae populations in southern Apennines, Italy, with particular reference to those referred to A. calabra, by employing biometrical methods on macromorphological data. Among other historical misapplications, A. cynanchica subsp. cynanchica seems to be very rare or missing in southern Italy. The enigmatic Asperula calabra, confirmed to be limited to a single mountain population in Calabria, appears to be strictly related to A. aristata subsp. scabra, so we suggest to treat it as a further subspecies of A. aristata. This latter species is otherwise distributed throughout southern Italy with subsp. scabra and subsp. aristata, characterised by slight morphological differences, which are correlated to altitudinal ranges.     

Macrofungi in Mediterranean maquis along seashore and altitudinal transects

In semi-arid Mediterranean environments, fungal activity is fundamental for buffering biotic and abiotic stress to the plant and for sustaining a vegetation cover. Despite the important role that fungi play in habitats stability, mycological data from Mediterranean ecosystems are scarce and fragmentary. We investigated fungal diversity in several areas characterized by Mediterranean maquis, from continental Italy, Sicily, and Greece in order to contribute to the analysis of distribution, ecology, and diversity of macrofungi in evergreen sclerophyllous shrublands at different elevation and distance from the seashore across the Mediterranean Basin. Several fungal taxa that are remarkable due to their ecology, rarity, and limited geographical distribution were recovered. Among them, the ectomycorrhizal species Amanita dunensis and A. valens were recorded for the first time in Italy. The wood-inhabiting macrofungi, Aleurodiscus dextrinoideocerussatus, Peniophorella tsugae, Perenniporia meridionalis, Phanerochaete martelliana, Vararia ochroleuca, and six Peniophora species were reported for the first time in Greece. Some species, such as Gloeodontia columbiensis, Ceriporia aurantiocarnescens, Peniophora pithya, and P. tamaricicola were collected on new substrates. For the two rare basidiomycetes Amanita eliae and Battarrea phalloides, molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis gave valuable information on their relationship with similar taxa.     

Diversity of macrofungi and exploitation of edible mushroom resources in the National Park “Appennino Lucano,Val D'Agri,Lagonegrese” (Italy)

An investigation on the macrofungal diversity of the National Park “Appennino Lucano, Val D'Agri, Lagonegrese” (Basilicata, southern Italy) was carried out, together with an evaluation of wild edible mushrooms in agro-forest ecosystems and their possible exploitation as a new source of food and revenue in rural and under-developed areas of this region. An unpublished list of 249 mushroom taxa (229 Basidiomycota and 20 Ascomycota), mostly belonging to the genera Tricholoma, Tuber, Russula, Amanita, Boletus, Lactarius, Mycena, Agaricus, Clitocybe and Hygrophorus, growing in this important natural area is provided together with ecological characterization of the recorded specimens. Inonotus obliquus is a new record for Basilicata, while Mycena bresadolana is reported for the first time from southern Italy. The presence of Amaurodon mustialaënsis, an extremely rare species of the northern hemisphere reported for the first time on white fir, is noteworthy. Among the previous findings, 116 species of edible mushrooms are presented and discussed in view of their relative abundance and edibility.     

Phenology of Sargassum spp. in Tung Ping Chau Marine Park, Hong Kong SAR, China

Eight species of the brown alga Sargassum have been recorded from Tung Ping Chau Marine Park in Hong Kong and the phenology of four of these was monitored from 1996 to 2000. All four species followed a typical growth cycle of Sargassum species reported elsewhere but with some annual variations. For S. hemiphyllum, the maximum mean (±SD) plant length, ranging from 38.5 ± 10.5 to 61.9 ± 19.9 cm, was recorded in January to March. The peak reproductive season was also mainly in February to March with up to 89% of the plants being reproductive. Some plants, however, remained reproductive until May. For. S. henslowianum, the maximum mean plant length, ranging from 45.5 ± 25.5 to 77 ± 24.8 cm, was recorded mainly in November to January. The peak reproductive season was in November to February with up to 100% of the plants being reproductive. For S. siliquastrum, the maximum mean plant length, ranging from 48.2 ± 29.9 to 63.4 ± 22.1 cm, was also recorded mainly in January. The reproductive plants were found mainly between late December and mid February with up to 98% of the plants being reproductive. For. S. patens, the maximum mean plant length ranging from 87.6 ± 62.4 to 118.7 ± 41.3 cm was recorded in January to March. Reproduction of this species was not monitored. Changes in water temperature over seasons were likely to be critical in affecting the phenological patterns of these species.     

The role of migratory ducks in the long‐distance dispersal of native plants and the spread of exotic plants in Europe

Little is known about the role of migratory waterfowl in the long‐distance dispersal (LDD) of seeds. We studied the gut contents of 42 teals Anas crecca collected in the Camargue, southern France, and found intact seeds of 16 species. There was no relationship between the probability that a given seed species was found intact in the lower gut, and the seed hardness or size. The number of seeds found in the oesophagus and gizzard (a measure of ingestion rate) was the only significant predictor of the occurrence of intact seeds in the lower gut, so studies of waterfowl diet can be used as surrogates of dispersal potential. In a literature review, we identified 223 seed species recorded in 25 diet studies of teal, pintail Anas acuta, wigeon A. penelope or mallard A. platyrhynchos in Europe. We considered whether limited species distribution reduces the chances that a seed can be carried to suitable habitat following LDD. Overall, 72% of plant species recorded in duck diets in southern Europe (36 of 50) were also recorded in the north, whereas 97% of species recorded in duck diets in the north (137 of 141) were also recorded in the south. This suggests a great potential for LDD, since most dispersed plants species occur throughout the migratory range of ducks. Migratory ducks are important vectors for both terrestrial and aquatic plant species, even those lacking the fleshy fruits or hooks typically used to identify seeds dispersed by birds. Finally, we show ducks are important vectors of exotic plant species. We identified 14 alien to Europe and 44 native to Europe but introduced to some European countries whose seeds have been recorded in duck diet.     

Amphibians in Eurasian otter Lutra lutra diet: osteological identification unveils hidden prey richness and male‐biased predation on anurans

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Mycorrhizal and dark septate fungal associations in shola species of Western Ghats, southern India

We analyzed mycorrhizal types and dark septate endophyte (DSE) fungal associations in a shola vegetation of Western Ghats region, southern India. Plants belonging to 29 species of 19 families were assessed for mycorrhizal type and DSE fungal association. Five mycorrhizal classes were classified based on morphological traits: arbuscular, ecto-, ectendo-, ericoid-, and orchid mycorrhizas. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) association was the most predominant mycorrhizal type, occurring in 16 plant species, followed by orchid (3 species), ericoid- (2 species), and ecto- and ectendomycorrhizas (1 species each). Mycorrhizal association is reported for the first time in 19 plant species. DSE fungal association was found in six plant species. Arum- and Paris-type AM morphology was found, respectively, in 10 and 5 plant species, with intermediate type recorded in one species. In this study, some new records on the morphological types of AM in some plant families were obtained. Further occurrence of ectendomycorrhizas in Pinus oocarpa and dark septate fungal association in Eleaocarpus munronii, Symplocos cochinchiensis, Daphniphyllum neilgherrense, Euodia roxburghiana, Syzygium arnottianum, and Syzygium montanum are reported for the first time. Roots of Berberis tinctoria, Mahonia leschenaultii (Berberidaceae), Elaeagnus latifolia (Elaeagnaceae), and Elaeocarpus oblongus (Elaeocarpaceae) lacked any fungal structures.     

A new cryptic species of pond turtle from southern Italy, the hottest spot in the range of the genus Emys (Reptilia, Testudines, Emydidae)

Geographic variation in the mtDNA haplotypes (cytochrome b gene) of 127 European pond turtles from Italy was investigated. Thirty‐eight of the Italian samples were also studied by nuclear fingerprinting (ISSR PCR) and compared with samples from other parts of the range representing all nine currently known mtDNA lineages of Emys orbicularis. Our genetic findings were compared against morphological data sets (measurements, colour pattern) for 109 adult turtles from southern Italy. Italy is displaying on a small geographical scale the most complicated variation known over the entire distributional area of Emys (North Africa over Europe and Asia Minor to the Caspian and Aral Seas). The Tyrrhenic coast of the Apennine Peninsula, the Mt. Pollino area and Basilicata are inhabited by Emys orbicularis galloitalica, a subspecies harbouring a distinct mtDNA lineage. The same lineage is also found in Sardinia. Along the Adriatic coast of Italy and on the Salentine Peninsula (Apulia, southern Italy), another morphologically distinctive subspecies (Emys orbicularis hellenica) occurs, which also bears a different mtDNA lineage. A higher diversity of mtDNA haplotypes in the south of the Apennine Peninsula suggests that the glacial refugia of E. o. galloitalica and E. o. hellenica were located here. A further refuge of E. o. hellenica probably existed in the southern Balkans. The west coasts of the Balkans and Corfu have probably been colonized from Italy and not from the geographically closer southern Balkanic refuge. In Sicily, a third mtDNA lineage is distributed, which is sister to all other known lineages of Emys. Morphologically, Sicilian pond turtles resemble E. o. galloitalica. However, nuclear fingerprinting revealed a clear distinctiveness of the Sicilian taxon, whereas no significant divergence was detected between representatives of the other eight mtDNA lineages of Emys. Furthermore, nuclear fingerprinting provided no evidence for current or past gene flow between the Sicilian taxon and the mainland subspecies of E. orbicularis. Therefore, Sicilian pond turtles are described here as a species new to science. Some populations in Calabria and on the Salentine Peninsula comprise individuals of different mtDNA lineages. We interpret this as a natural contact. However, we cannot exclude that these syntopic occurrences are the result of human activity. For example, in other parts of Italy, the natural distribution pattern of Emys is obscured by allochthonous turtles. This could also be true for southern Italy. The discovery of the complex taxonomic differentiation in southern Italy requires reconsidering conservation strategies.     

Species distribution modeling and molecular markers suggest longitudinal range shifts and cryptic northern refugia of the typical calcareous grassland species Hippocrepis comosa (horseshoe vetch)

Calcareous grasslands belong to the most diverse, endangered habitats in Europe, but there is still insufficient information about the origin of the plant species related to these grasslands. In order to illuminate this question, we chose for our study the representative grassland species Hippocrepis comosa (Horseshoe vetch). Based on species distribution modeling and molecular markers, we identified the glacial refugia and the postglacial migration routes of the species to Central Europe. We clearly demonstrate that H. comosa followed a latitudinal and due to its oceanity also a longitudinal gradient during the last glacial maximum (LGM), restricting the species to southern refugia situated on the Peninsulas of Iberia, the Balkans, and Italy during the last glaciation. However, we also found evidence for cryptic northern refugia in the UK, the Alps, and Central Germany. Both species distribution modeling and molecular markers underline that refugia of temperate, oceanic species such as H. comosa must not be exclusively located in southern but also in western of parts of Europe. The analysis showed a distinct separation of the southern refugia into a western cluster embracing Iberia and an eastern group including the Balkans and Italy, which determined the postglacial recolonization of Central Europe. At the end of the LGM, H. comosa seems to have expanded from the Iberian refugium, to Central and Northern Europe, including the UK, Belgium, and Germany.     

The American brine shrimp as an exotic invasive species in the western Mediterranean

The hypersaline environments and salterns present in the western Mediterranean region (including Italy, southern France, the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco) contain autochthonous forms of the brine shrimp Artemia, with parthenogenetic diploid and tetraploid strains coexisting with the bisexual species A. salina. Introduced populations of the American brine shrimp A. franciscana have also been recorded in these Mediterranean environments since the 1980s. Based on brine shrimp cyst samples collected in these countries from 1980 until 2002, we were able to establish the present distribution of autochthonous brine shrimps and of A. franciscana, which is shown to be an expanding invasive species. The results obtained show that A. franciscana is now the dominant Artemia species in Portuguese salterns, along the French Mediterranean coast and in Cadiz bay (Spain). Co-occurrence of autochthonous (parthenogenetic) and American brine shrimp populations was observed in Morocco (Mar Chica) and France (Aigues Mortes), whereas A. franciscana was not found in Italian cyst samples. The results suggest these exotic A. franciscana populations originate as intentional or non-intentional inoculations through aquacultural (hatchery effluents) or pet market activities, and suggest that the native species can be rapidly replaced by the exotic species. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Host plant identification in the generalist xylem feeder Philaenus spumarius through gut content analysis

The meadow spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius L. (Hemiptera: Aphrophoridae), is the main vector of the phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa in Europe, where the ST53 strain induces the olive quick decline syndrome, causing severe economic damage in southern Italy. The wide range of plant species infected by X. fastidiosa, and the wide host range of P. spumarius suggest that a large number of wild and cultivated plants may become infected by the pathogen following unintentional introduction events. Therefore, it is necessary to detail the host plant preference of the vector, in order to include preferred plants in the field, in pathogen-targeted diagnostic efforts. This would allow the identification of main sources of X. fastidiosa acquisition by P. spumarius; such plant species represent an important target for rational disease management. Here, we investigated the host plants of P. spumarius in north-western Italy, a region where X. fastidiosa is still not present but is regarded as a primary threat. We designed a new molecular diagnostic tool targeting chloroplast DNA, to characterize the gut content of single P. spumarius adults. The newly set up, nested PCR/sequencing-based identification protocol was proven to be useful for retrieving sequences from the last two different host plants used by P. spumarius, even if limited persistence of intact chloroplast DNA was reported in the spittlebug gut. We propose this protocol as a new tool for supporting research on xylem feeder biology that could be particularly useful for highly polyphagous species such as P. spumarius. Furthermore, the method could help monitor X. fastidiosa invasion, and contribute to the study of vector ecology and pathogen epidemiology.     

Endophytic fungi occurring in fennel, lettuce, chicory, and celery — commercial crops in southern Italy

The occurrence of endophytic fungi in fennel, lettuce, chicory, and celery crops was investigated in southern Italy. A total of 186 symptomless plants was randomly collected and sampled at the stage of commercial ripeness. Fungal species of Acremonium, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Plectosporium were detected in all four crops; Plectosporium tabacinum was the most common in all crop species and surveyed sites. The effect of eight endophytic isolates (five belonging to Plectosporium tabacinum and three to three species of Acremonium) inoculated on lettuce plants grown in gnotobiosis was assessed by recording plant height, root length and dry weight, collar diameter, root necrosis, and leaf yellowing. P. tabacinum and three species of Acremonium, inoculated on gnotobiotically grown lettuce plants, showed pathogenic activity that varied with the fungal isolate. Lettuce plants inoculated with the isolates Ak of Acremonium kiliense, Ac of Acremonium cucurbitacearum, and P35 of P. tabacinum showed an increased root growth, compared to the non-inoculated control. The high frequency of P. tabacinum isolation recorded in lettuce plants collected in Bari and Metaponto, and in fennel plants from Foggia agricultural districts, suggests a relationship not only between a crop species and P. tabacinum, but also between the occurrence of the endophyte and the crop rotation history of the soil.     

Pinguicula lavalvae (Lentibulariaceae), a new endemic butterwort from southern Italy diagnosed with the aid of geometric morphometrics

We describe a new butterwort species, Pinguicula lavalvae, endemic to Campania, southern Italy. The new taxon falls within the subgenus Isoloba, section Cardiophyllum, and is related to P. hirtiflora. Distinctive features of the flower shape and size are investigated through classic and modern geometric morphometrics. The new species differs mostly in flower characteristics, with a white corolla lacking a net-shaped pattern of stripes in the palate-like area, smaller and less wide-open corollas, and larger calices.     

Flower preferences and pollen transport networks for cavity‐nesting solitary bees: Implications for the design of agri‐environment schemes

Floral foraging resources are valuable for pollinator conservation on farmland, and their provision is encouraged by agri‐environment schemes in many countries. Across Europe, wildflower seed mixtures are widely sown on farmland to encourage pollinators, but the extent to which key pollinator groups such as solitary bees exploit and benefit from these resources is unclear. We used high‐throughput sequencing of 164 pollen samples extracted from the brood cells of six common cavity‐nesting solitary bee species (Osmia bicornis, Osmia caerulescens, Megachile versicolor, Megachile ligniseca, Megachile centuncularis and Hylaeus confusus) which are widely distributed across the UK and Europe. We documented their pollen use across 19 farms in southern England, UK, revealing their forage plants and examining the structure of their pollen transport networks. Of the 32 plant species included currently in sown wildflower mixes, 15 were recorded as present within close foraging range of the bees on the study farms, but only Ranunculus acris L. was identified within the pollen samples. Rosa canina L. was the most commonly found of the 23 plant species identified in the pollen samples, suggesting that, in addition to providing a nesting resource for Megachile leafcutter bees, it may be an important forage plant for these species. Higher levels of connectance and nestedness were characteristic of pollen transport networks on farms with abundant floral resources, which may increase resilience to species loss. Our data suggest that plant species promoted currently by agri‐environment schemes are not optimal for solitary bee foraging. If a diverse community of pollinators is to be supported on UK and European farmland, additional species such as R. canina should be encouraged to meet the foraging requirements of solitary bees.     

New distributional data of the rare endemic species Eokochia saxicola (Guss.) Freitag and G. Kadereit (Chenopodiaceae): Effects on biogeography and conservation

Eokochia saxicola (Guss.) Freitag & G. Kadereit is a very rare endemic species of southern Italy and one of the rarest plants in Europe, included as priority species in the Annex II of the Council Directive 92/43/EEC. During the floristic surveys in the Cilento e Vallo di Diano National Park (Campania region, southern Italy), with the aim to assess the conservation status of rare and/or endemic species, new sites of occurrence of E. saxicola have been recorded representing the first known mainland sites; in fact, this endemic species was previously recorded only in the insular sites of Ischia (where it is extinct) and Capri in Campania region and Strombolicchio in Sicily region. Moreover, a further site was found in Capri island. So, three new sites of occurrence of E. saxicola have been recorded, increasing the total number from the two previously known to the actual five; in Campania, the total number increased from one to four. The research also increased significantly the global population size, currently made up of about 270 individuals compared with the 150 previously known. Consequences for the biogeography of the species and practical issues for conservation are discussed.     

Applications of self-organizing map for patterning macrofungal diversity of xerothermic swards

Macrofungal communities were investigated in four associations of xerothermic swards: Festucetum pallentis, Origano-Brachypodietum, Adonido-Brachypodietum pinnati and Diantho-Armerietum elongatae in a Jurassic area of the Częstochowa Upland (southern Poland). A total of 47 species were recorded. The self-organising map (SOM)—an unsupervised algorithm for artificial neural networks—was used to recognise patterns in the macrofungal communities of diverse xerothermic swards. Only two associations were mycologically similar: Origano-Brachypodietum and Adonido-Brachypodietum pinnati. Species with high and significant IndVal (the species indicator value) for each investigated phytocoenoses are presented. The presence of macrofungal species and the participation of indicator species were connected with habitat factors of plant associations, as documented by the IndVal application. In the least fertile phytocoenoses, macrofungal communities were poor with few indicator species. The more fertile phytocoenoses had richer and more varied communities of macrofungi with higher numbers of indicator species. The ordering methods applied in this study were very effective for analyzing the macrofungal communities existing in plant associations.     

Ranunculus giordanoi sp. nov. from the R. auricomus complex (Ranunculaceae), central Apennines (Italy)

A new species, Ranunculus giordanoi, belonging to the R. auricomus complex is described from Latium, central Apennines (Italy). It grows in damp meadows on Monti della Laga (National Park of Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga), the largest sandstone massif of central Italy. The new species differs from the closely related R. silanus, endemic to Sila (Calabria, southern Apennines), by leaf aperture, shape of the basal leaves, entire or sometimes deeply lobed cauline leaves, gynoclinium without intervallum and longer carpellophores.     

Late Pleistocene and Holocene chamois in Italy

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