Neuron-specific enolase in mucosal endocrine cells and carcinoid tumours of the small intestine: A comparative study with neuron-specific enolase immunocytochemistry and silver stains

Summary Endocrine cells of human small intestinal mucosa, small intestinal carcinoids and carcinoid liver metastases were stained with an immunocytochemical technique using an antiserum against neuron-specific enolase (NSE), with the argyrophil technique of Grimelius and with the argentaffin technique of Masson. In the normal mucosa, scattered NSE-immunoreactive cells were seen mainly in the deeper parts of the crypts. These cells, as shown in the same sections, corresponded to the argentaffin and/or argyrophil cells indicating that they were of endocrine type.All intestinal carcinoids (16 cases) displayed NSE immunoreactivity. However, this reaction did not correlate on the cellular level with the silver techniques employed. Thus, many tumour cells were NSE immunoreactive but lacked an argentaffin or argyrophil reaction and vice versa. On the light microscopical level the silver techniques reveal the presence of neurohormonal granules in the tumour cells, while the NSE immunoreactivity appears to disclose neuroendocrine differentiation of the tumour cells irrespective of their hormone and granular content.Out of 13 carcinoid liver metastases, eight displayed strong NSE immunoreactivity, three were weakly stained and two were unreactive. Consecutive or the same tumour sections showed an argentaffin and argyrophil reaction in all carcinoid metastases. Since silver staining provides one type of information and NSE immunocytochemistry another, they provide in combination a good discriminator for neuroendocrine tumours.     

Application of silver stains to cytologic specimens of neuroendocrine tumors metastatic to the liver

Cytologic specimens of neuroendocrine tumors metastatic to the liver were examined with regard to their silver staining properties after the application of argentaffin and argyrophil staining techniques (Masson, Grimelius and Sevier-Munger). In tumors with a content of serotonin (small intestine carcinoids), the presence of this substance was demonstrated cytologically as an argentaffin reaction in individual tumor cells; however, formalin fixation was a prerequisite for positive staining. Melanin in malignant melanoma cells displayed a positive argentaffin reaction, irrespective of the fixation used (air drying, formalin, Bouin's fluid or acetone-alcohol). Thus, serotonin and melanin can be distinguished in cytologic samples of neuroendocrine tumors by the use of the Masson argentaffin reaction with different fixatives. The nonargentaffin-positive neuroendocrine tumor cells were weakly stained or unreactive with the Grimelius argyrophil technique. The Sevier-Munger argyrophil technique was negative or gave a disturbing nonspecific background staining reaction that was difficult to interpret in the cytologic samples. Thus, the Grimelius method appears to be the most useful silver stain for identifying neuroendocrine tumor cells in cytologic material, irrespective of their hormone content, since both argentaffin-positive and argentaffin-negative cell samples were stained at least to some degree.     

Chromogranin A,B and C immunoreactivities of mammalian endocrine cells

Summary Antibodies specific for chromogranin A, B or C have been used to detect immunohistochemically these three anionic proteins. Pancreatic A, B and PP cells, gut argentaffin EC, argyrophil ECL and gastrin G cells, thyroid C cells, parathyroid cells, adrenal medullary cells, pituitary TSH, FSH and LH cells as well as some axons of visceral nerves have been found to react with chromogranin A antibodies. Pancreatic A, gut EC and G, adrenal medullary and pituitary cells as well as some gut nerve fibers showed chromogranin B immunoreactivity. Chromogranin C immunoreactivity has been detected in pancreatic A, pyloric D₁, intestinal L, thyroid C, adrenal medullary and pituitary cells, as well as in some gut neurons and nerve fibers. No crossreactivity has been found in immunohistochemical tests between chromogranins A, B or C and costored monoamines or peptide hormones/prohormones, from which chromogranins can be separated by selective extraction during fixation. On both morphological and chemical grounds a relationship seems to exist between chromogranin A and Grimelius' argyrophilia. Sialooligosaccharide chains of chromogranin A and, possibly, chromogranins' phosphoserine/phosphothreonine groups, seem to interact with guanidyl, amino, and/or imidazole groups of non-chromogranin components to form silver complexing sites accounting for granules' argyrophilia, which can be removed or blocked without affecting chromogranin immunoreactivities. The abundant anionic groups of the three proteins should contribute substantially to granules' basophilia, the partly masked pattern of which supports the existence of a close interaction of such groups with other components of secretory granules, including monoamines and peptide hormones or prohormones. Chromogranins could play a role in hormone postranslational biosynthesis and intragranular packaging.     

Electron microscopic classification of amine-producing endocrine cells by selective staining of ultra-thin sections

Summary The argyrophil, argentaffin and chromaffin reactions were performed directly on ultra-thin sections for examination in the electron microscope. Glutaraldehyde fixation was appropriate for the argentaffin and chromaffin reactions; additional fixation with osmium tetroxide, however, caused impairment of these reactions. Fixation with formaldehyde, but not with glutaraldehyde, was adequate for the argyrophil reaction; post-fixation with osmium tetroxide did not affect this staining. At the light microscopic level the staining reactions were correlated with fluorescence histochemistry according to the method of Falck and Hillarp. The techniques described were used to study certain amine-producing endocrine cell systems: adrenal medullary cells and thyroid parafollicular cells of the mouse, gastric endocrine cells from the oxyntic gland area of the mouse, rat and rabbit. All these cells stained argyrophil. The adrenal medullary cells and one cell type in the oxyntic gland area of the rabbit were strongly argentaffin and chromaffin. The remainder of the cells were non-argentaffin and non-chromaffin but could be induced to give an argentaffin (and chromaffin) reaction after injection of the animals with l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine or l-5-hydroxytryptophan, a treatment which is known to result in the accumulation of the highly reducing dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine, respectively, in these endocrine cells. Without exception the precipitates formed in all the staining reactions accumulated selectively over the secretory granules of the cells.The techniques described permit differential staining of consecutive ultra-thin sections for electron microscopic characterization of one and the same cell. They will provide information necessary for correlative studies of the stainable cells at the light and electron microscopic levels.     

Chromogranin A, B and C immunoreactivities of mammalian endocrine cells. Distribution, distinction from costored hormones/prohormones and relationship with the argyrophil component of secretory granules

Antibodies specific for chromogranin A, B or C have been used to detect immunohistochemically these three anionic proteins. Pancreatic A, B and PP cells, gut argentaffin EC, argyrophil ECL and gastrin G cells, thyroid C cells, parathyroid cells, adrenal medullary cells, pituitary TSH, FSH and LH cells as well as some axons of visceral nerves have been found to react with chromogranin A antibodies. Pancreatic A, gut EC and G, adrenal medullary and pituitary cells as well as some gut nerve fibers showed chromogranin B immunoreactivity. Chromogranin C immunoreactivity has been detected in pancreatic A, pyloric D1, intestinal L, thyroid C, adrenal medullary and pituitary cells, as well as in some gut neurons and nerve fibers. No crossreactivity has been found in immunohistochemical tests between chromogranins A, B or C and costored monoamines or peptide hormones/prohormones, from which chromogranins can be separated by selective extraction during fixation. On both morphological and chemical grounds a relationship seems to exist between chromogranin A and Grimelius' argyrophilia. Sialooligosaccharide chains of chromogranin A and, possibly, chromogranins' phosphoserine/phosphothreonine groups, seem to interact with guanidyl, amino, and/or imidazole groups of non-chromogranin components to form silver complexing sites accounting for granules' argyrophilia, which can be removed or blocked without affecting chromogranin immunoreactivities. The abundant anionic groups of the three proteins should contribute substantially to granules' basophilia, the partly "masked" pattern of which supports the existence of a close interaction of such groups with other components of secretory granules, including monoamines and peptide hormones or prohormones. Chromogranins could play a r?le in hormone postranslational biosynthesis and intragranular packaging.     

Effect of temperature on argyrophil impregnation: development of a high temperature rapid argyrophil procedure

Our studies on the effects of temperature on the demonstration of neurosecretory granules using argyrophil stains indicate an inverse relationship between the time needed for staining and temperature of the silver and reducing solutions. Careful monitoring of the temperature of silver solutions during the Grimelius procedure and its modifications show long incubation times serve in large part only to bring the solutions to reaction temperature. Tissue sections added when this temperature has been reached will stain with the same intensity as sections impregnated for the entire incubation period. We have modified the argyrophil procedure so that double-impregnation with solutions preheated to 60-70 C and development in Bodian's reducer prepared with preheated water rapidly demonstrates secretory granules. Our method does not require a microwave oven and much shorter incubation periods are required than with usual procedures. It is not necessary to incubate sections in hot solutions for extended periods of time, which can lead to detachment of sections, nonspecific staining and decomposition of the silver solution. Rinsing after impregnation and before development greatly increases contrast of argyrophil cells by reducing background staining. Our procedure results in more reliable staining of argyrophil and argentaffin cells and takes only ten minutes.     

Effect of Temperature on Argyrophil Impregnation: Development of A High Temperature Rapid Argyrophil Procedure

Out studies on the effects of temperature on the demonstration of neurosecretory granules using argyrophil stains indicate an inverse relationship between the time needed for staining and temperature of the silver and reducing solutions. Careful monitoring of the temperature of silver solutions during the Grimelius procedure and its modifications show long incubation times serve in large part only to bring the solutions to reaction temperature. Tissue sections added when this temperature has been reached will stain with the same intensity as sections impregnated for the entire incubation period. We have modified the argyrophil procedure so that double-impregnation with solutions preheated to 60-70 C and development in Bodian's reducer prepared with preheated water rapidly demonstrates secretory granules. Our method does not require a microwave oven and much shorter incubation periods are required than with usual procedures. It is not necessary to incubate sections in hot solutions for extended periods of time, which can lead to detachment of sections, nonspecific staining and decomposition of the silver solution. Rinsing after impregnation and before development greatly increases contrast of argyrophil cells by reducing background staining. Our procedure results in more reliable staining of argyrophil and argentaffin cells and takes only ten minutes.     

Silver stains in the study of endocrine cells of the gut and pancreas

The usefulness of argentaffin (Masson) and argyrophil (Davenport, Sevier-Munger and Grimelius) staining methods for identification of endocrine cell types in the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas is discussed and comments are made on the techniques themselves. The applicability of silver impregnation methods in the histopathological investigations of endocrine tumours in the above-mentioned organs is outlined, and the chemical background of the silver reactions is briefly reviewed.     

Endocrine cells of the human gastric mucosa

Summary By light and electron microscopy investigation of the human gastric mucosa five types of ultrastructurally different endocrine cells have been detected: 5-hydroxytryptamine storing enterochromaffin (EC) cells, gastrin storing G cells, and functionally undefined ECL, D and D₁ cells. By direct application of Masson's argentaffin reaction as well as of Sevier-Munger's and Grimelius' argyrophil method to electron microscopy specimens, selective deposition of silver grains upon the endocrine granules of such cells was obtained. In particular, only EC cell granules reacted to the argentaffin method, granules of both EC and ECL cells heavily reacted to Sevier-Munger's technique, granules of EC, ECL, G and D₁ cells reacted to Grimelius' technique, while D cell granules failed to react either to argentaffin or argyrophil methods. By the application of the same silver methods to paraffin sections as well as by other selective staining methods for endocrine granules (5-hydroxytryptamine techniques, lead-haematoxylin, HCl-basic dye method), at least four of the above cell types were also identified under light microscope. This opens the way for extensive studies of such cells in conventional histologie specimens.This investigation was supported in part by grant N.70.01022.04 from the Italian Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.     

Light and electron microscopic identification of the histamine-storing argyrophil (ECL) cell in murine stomach and of its equivalent in other mammals

Summary A peculiar type of cell, the ECL cell, accounts for a large portion of nonenterochromaffin endocrine cells in the gastric oxyntic glands of several mammals, including rat, mouse, guinea pig, rabbit, cat, dog, pig, and man. The ECL cell is characterized mainly by its secretory granules with irregular cores heavily reacting to Grimelius' silver, Sevier-Munger silver and phosphotungstic acid, while failing to react, in all species but the cat and rabbit, to Masson's argentaffin method. In the rat and mouse, the ECL cell seems to correspond exactly to the argyrophil non-argentaffin histamine-storing enterochromaffin-like cell of Håkanson and Owman (1967); in the remaining species, ECL cells seem to account for only a part of the gastric argyrophil enterochromaffin-like cells described by Håkanson and coworkers. Besides sporadic amines, ECL cell granules store non-amine components, whose possible nature is discussed.This investigation was supported in part by Farmitalia S.p.A., Milano.     

Ultrastructural studies of endocrine cell populations showing an argentaffin reaction and/or serotonin immunoreactivity in the rat antral mucosa

Summary On the basis of staining results in closely related semi-thin sections from rat antral mucosa immunostained with polyclonal serotonin antibodies and silver-stained for the argentaffin reaction, respectively, three different cell populations could be distinguished. One of these cell populations showed both serotonin immunoreactivity and an argentaffin reaction, a second one serotonin immunoreactivity alone, and a third one only an argentaffin reaction.These cell populations were studied electron microscopically in ultra-thin sections located between the stained semi-thin sections. The cell population displaying an agentaffin reaction and serotonin immunoreactivity showed secretory granules of the enterochromaffin cell type. A similar granular appearance was observed in cells which only exhibited an argentaffin reaction. Serotonin immunoreactivity in the absence of an argentaffin reaction was evident in some G (gastrin) cells. and in some D₁ and possibly also some D (somatostatin) cells; but not all the endocrine cells of the non-enterochromaffin type displayed serotonin immunoreactivity. The significance of the different reactions in the three cell populations is discussed.     

A novel endocrine cell type in the guinea-pig gastric mucosa: cellular source of pro-enkephalin-derived peptides

Summary A novel endocrine cell type has been identified in the guinea-pig gastric mucosa which preferentially occurs in the oxyntic area. Cells of this type exhibit immunoreactivities for bovine adrenal medulla dodecapeptide (BAM-12P) and in many cases for Met-enkephalin and are thus presumed to contain a pro-enkephalin-like precursor protein. Systematic immunohistochemical investigations show that these cells do not contain immunoreactivities for various enteric hormones, neuropeptides and biogenic amines (serotonin, histamine). However, they do contain immunoreactivity for chromogranin A, an acidic glycoprotein which is common to the majority of entero-endocrine cells. Using silver impregnation techniques BAM-12P immunoreactive cells prove to be argyrophil, but fail to react argentaffin. On the electron microscopical level, these cells contain a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus and numerous polymorphous secretion granules which measure about 290 nm in diameter. The secretion granules are ovoid or pear-shaped but largely plump compared to those of enterochromaffin cells. Light and electron microscopical findings indicate that BAM-12P immunoreactive cells constitute an endocrine cell population of the gastric epithelium in addition to the established endocrine cells hitherto known in this location.This study was supported by grants of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (EN 65/15-2)For this work the author was awarded the Wolfgang-Bargmann-Price 1990 of the Anatomische Gesellschaft     

5-Hydroxytryptamine in the enterochromaffin cells of the guinea pig alimentary tract

Summary The histoohemical properties of the EC in the guinea pig alimentary canal were studied using the paraformaldehyde-induced fluorescence and five ordinary staining reactions. The fluorescence reaction was observed to be the most sensitive and specific one in the demonstration of the EC. Using the fluorescence and argyrophil techniques concomitantly, it was stated that all the fluorescent EC had also argyrophil properties. These observations lend further support to the author's earlier statement (Penttilä), 1966) that there is only one principal type of EC in the gastrointestinal tract. The argentaffin and other staining reactions were not able to colour all the EC, except in the duodenum.In the quantitative part of this study the EC number (No./mm) and the 5-HT (g/g) concentration were determined from the adjacent tissue pieces. Both quantities were absolutely at its highest in the duodenum and decreased in the caudal direction of the intestine. In the stomach the values were of the same magnitude as in the middle part of the intestinal tract. In the oesophagus there were no EC and the 5-HT content was negligible in comparison to the other gastrointestinal sites. The correlation between the EC number and the 5-HT content was highly significant from the stomach to the rectum. The 5-HT content per one EC was the largest in the duodenum. Comparing the histochemical and quantitative results the 5-HT location in the enterochromaffin system was discussed.     

A novel endocrine cell type in the guinea-pig gastric mucosa: cellular source of pro-enkephalin-derived peptides. A histochemical, immunohistochemical, and electron microscopical characterization

A novel endocrine cell type has been identified in the guinea-pig gastric mucosa which preferentially occurs in the oxyntic area. Cells of this type exhibit immunoreactivities for bovine adrenal medulla dodecapeptide (BAM-12P) and in many cases for Met-enkephalin and are thus presumed to contain a pro-enkephalin-like precursor protein. Systematic immunohistochemical investigations show that these cells do not contain immunoreactivities for various enteric hormones, neuropeptides and biogenic amines (serotonin, histamine). However, they do contain immunoreactivity for chromogranin A, an acidic glycoprotein which is common to the majority of entero-endocrine cells. Using silver impregnation techniques BAM-12P immunoreactive cells prove to be argyrophil, but fail to react argentaffin. On the electron microscopical level, these cells contain a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus and numerous polymorphous secretion granules which measure about 290 nm in diameter. The secretion granules are ovoid or pear-shaped but largely plump compared to those of enterochromaffin cells. Light and electron microscopical findings indicate that BAM-12P immunoreactive cells constitute an endocrine cell population of the gastric epithelium in addition to the "established" endocrine cells hitherto known in this location.     

Electron microscopic identification of the histamine-storing argyrophil (enterochromaffin-like) cells in the rat stomach

Summary In the oxyntic gland area of the rat stomach the histamine-containing epithelial cells (also referred to as enterochromaffin-like cells because of their morphologic similarity with the 5-hydroxytryptamine-storing enterochromaffin cells) constitute the system of argyrophil cells in this area as previously shown by the combined use of fluorescence and light microscopic techniques. By performing the argyrophil staining reaction directly on ultra-thin sections it could be demonstrated in the electron microscope that the argyrophil cells have features suggesting that they are endocrine. Based on the ultrastructure of their secretory granules at least two such endocrine cell systems—both argyrophil—could be recognized in the oxyntic glands. The silver deposits were accumulated over the secretory granules of both these cell systems.It is well known that after injection of 1-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, the histamine-storing (enterochromaffin-like) cells of the oxyntic glands store also dopamine. Under these conditions the enterochromaffin-like cells stain argentaffin, which has been shown at the light microscopic level. Also this reaction could be performed directly on ultra-thin sections. By electron microscopy it was then established that the two endocrine cell systems of the oxyntic gland area stained argentaffin upon treatment with 1-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, and that the staining was confined to the secretory granules.The results clearly show that the enterochromaffin-like cells of the rat oxyntic gland area (which is devoid of 5-hydroxytryptamine-containing enterochromaffin cells) are identical with cells characterized as endocrine by ultrastructural criteria, and that gastric non-mast-cell histamine occurs in at least two separate systems of enterochromaffin-like cells.     

Quantification of endocrine cells and ultrastructural study of insulin granules in the large intestine of opossum Didelphis aurita (Wied-Neuwied, 1826)

This study aimed to investigate the distribution of argyrophil, argentaffin, and insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells in the large intestine of opossums (Didelphis aurita) and to describe the ultrastructure of the secretory granules of insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells. Fragments of the large intestine of 10 male specimens of D. aurita were collected, processed, and subjected to staining, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. The argyrophil, the argentaffin, and the insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells were sparsely distributed in the intestinal glands of the mucous layer, among other cell types of the epithelium in all regions studied. Proportionally, the argyrophil, the argentaffin, and the insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells represented 62.75%, 36.26%, and 0.99% of the total determined endocrine cells of the large intestine, respectively. Quantitatively, there was no difference between the argyrophil and the argentaffin endocrine cells, whereas insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells were less numerous. The insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells were elongated or pyramidal, with rounded nuclei of irregularly contoured, and large amounts of secretory granules distributed throughout the cytoplasm. The granules have different sizes and electron densities and are classified as immature and mature, with the mature granules in predominant form in the overall granular population. In general, the granule is shown with an external electron-lucent halo and electron-dense core. The ultrastructure pattern in the granules of the insulin-immunoreactive endocrine cells was similar to that of the B cells of pancreatic islets in rats.     

Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumours. Histogenetic, histochemical, immunohistochemical, clinical and therapeutic aspects

The increased knowledge of the pathobiology of gastrointestinal carcinoid (neuroendocrine) tumours and the improved therapeutic possibilities have brought a demand for more precise diagnosis. Although the carcinoid tumours can often be tentatively recognized in routinely processed microscopic slides, their more accurate identification requires additional diagnostic procedures. General neuroendocrine markers such as the argyrophil reaction of Grimelius and immunohistochemistry with application of antibodies against chromogranin A and of neuron-specific enolase are discriminatory staining methods which are used to reveal the neuroendocrine origin of almost all highly differentiated carcinoid tumours of the gastrointestinal tract. Mid-gut carcinoids, which predominate among these tumours almost unexceptionally contain serotonin. This biogenic amine can be demonstrated by the argentaffin reaction of Masson, serotonin immunoreactively or by formalin-induced fluorescence. The characteristic staining pattern of mid-gut carcinoids is almost invariably preserved in the metastatic deposits and consequently the staining methods for identifying serotonin can also be used on metastases to reveal a primary mid-gut carcinoid. The enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell carcinoids of the body and fundic area of the stomach often seen in association with pernicious anaemia are argyrophil with the Sevier-Munger silver stain. Other neuroendocrine tumours, viz. antral, duodenal and rectal carcinoids should be studied by a battery of relevant peptide hormone antisera for adequate diagnosis. During the last decade new peptide hormones have been found in circulation in patients with carcinoid tumours, but serotonin and urinary 5-HIAA are still the most important markers for carcinoids of the mid-gut origin. Other clinically useful tumour markers are chromogranin A + B, pancreatic polypeptide, human chorionic gonadotropin alpha and beta subunits. For localizing procedures, angiography is the most reliable investigative method for primary tumours in the gut, whereas CT-scan and ultrasound investigations are good for detection of liver metastases. During the last five years, the therapy for malignant carcinoid tumours has been considerably improved. Chemotherapy has only revealed objective response rates in about 10-30% of the patients giving median survivals from start of therapy of about 10 months. Recently treatment with alpha interferons and the new somatostatin analogue octreotide have given objective responses in 50-75% of patients with malignant mid-gut carcinoid tumours. These patients have now a median survival from start of therapy of 70 months when treated with alpha interferons. In the future new therapies will come into use such as monoclonal antibodies and perhaps also agents blocking different growth factors.     

The chemical basis of the argentaffin reaction applied to glutaraldehyde fixed tissue

Summary A series of in vitro chemical tests was performed to elucidate the histochemical basis of the argentaffin technique in localizing 5-hydroxytryptamine within tissues fixed by glutaraldehyde. When glutaraldehyde is mixed with the amine a precipitate is formed which is trapped in the tissue at the site of 5-hydroxytryptamine storage. Chemically the precipitate is not a homogeneous compound. One aldehyde group of glutaraldehyde engages the amine group of 5-hydroxytryptamine in a condensation reaction to form a tetrahydro--carboline. The other aldehyde group is available in crypto form as a carbinolamine or its dehydration product and is readily released under the subsequent reaction conditions when ammoniacal silver hydroxide is added. Thus, metallic silver is precipitated at the site of 5-hydroxytryptamine storage in the tissues.This work was supported by grants from the Medical Research Council of Canada (MA 2182) and the Ontario Heart Association.     

Kinetics of formation of metallic silver and binding of silver ions by tissue components.

The effect of time on the formation of metallic silver by tissue reducing groups follows a curve which can be divided into three main parts. In the first, which may last for several hours, the reaction is very slow, and only an undetectably small amount of metallic silver is produced. In the second period the speed of the reaction first increases in a progressive manner and then begins to decrease gradually; during the third period the speed approaches zero asymptotically. Binding of the silver ions by the tissue commences initially at its fastest rate; the level then decreases steadily to zero within about a quarter of an hour. There is no direct relationship between the amount of silver ion bound to the tissue and the formation of metallic silver. The latter cannot take place by way of direct (non-catalysed) reaction. The following mechanism is proposed for the process: Transfer of electrons from the reducing molecules to the silver ions is mediated at first by certain tissue sites (catalytic points) and then also by the steadily increasing total surface area of the metallic silver grains (autocatalysis). On the basis of this mechanism, several anomalies of both the argentaffin and argyrophil reactions are explained.     

Kinetics of formation of metallic silver and binding of silver ions by tissue components

Summary The effect of time on the formation of metallic silver by tissue reducing groups follows a curve which can be devided into three main parts. In the first, which may last for several hours, the reaction is very slow, and only an undetectably small amount of metallic silver is produced. In the second period the speed of the reaction first increases in a progressive manner and then begins to decrease gradually; during the third period the speed approaches zero asymptotically. Binding of the silver ions by the tissue commences initially at its fastest rate; the level then decreases steadily to zero within about a quarter of an hour. There is no direct relationship between the amount of silver ion bound to the tissue and the formation of metallic silver. The latter cannot take place by way of direct (non-catalysed) reaction. The following mechanism is proposed for the process: Transfer of electrons from the reducing molecules to the silver ions is mediated at first by certain tissue sites (catalytic points) and then also by the steadily increasing total surface area of the metallic silver grains (autocatalysis). On the basis of this mechanism, several anomalies of both the argentaffin and argyrophil reactions are explained.