南极菲尔德斯半岛南部植被类型,群落物种多样性及其保护

根据群落的种类组成、外貌和结构、生态因素将菲尔德斯半岛南部(包括阿德雷岛)的植被划分为冻原、草甸、沼泽、水生植被四大类型。对下属的群系和群丛进行了描述。这些群落的形成与分布主要依赖于水分状况和基质的稳定与否。论述了从海边到内陆的山顶群落的分布规律、植被特点,并对不同群系、生境进行了群落植物的丰富度(物种数)、均匀度和多样性对比。从对比结果提出对保护工作的建议。     

Composition Patterns of Caribbean Limestone Forests: Are Parsimony,Classification, and Ordination Analyses Congruent?1

This study presents an analysis of floristic composition patterns for limestone vegetation from three Caribbean islands: Hispaniola, Mona, and Puerto Rico. The physical setting of these communities varies from very dry to wet climates, and from ridgetops, slopes, to plateaus. Consequently, vegetation communities have variable species composition. The questions addressed were: (1) What are the patterns of species composition among limestone vegetation types based on a parsimony analysis of species assemblages (PASA) and how congruent are they widi geography, climate, topography, and vegetation physiognomy? and (2) How do PASA patterns compare to floristic patterns obtained with a classification (UPGMA) and an ordination (NMS)? The main distinction of floristic categories was between communities of humid and dry climates, followed by a finer separation of communities congruent with topography; vegetation physiognomy corresponded with both. PASA, UPGMA, and NMS produced highly coincident floristic groups; however, affinities among groups were different. Advantages of PASA over UPGMA and NMS are that PASA produces groupings strictly based on the shared species and provides different measures of support for floristic groups. The three techniques indicated that the humid and dry limestone areas of Puerto Rico had floristically divergent dry‐type vegetation, even when they were structurally and physiognomically convergent. Also, floristic affinities of dry communities in Puerto Rico were stronger with dry communities on other islands than to more humid communities on the same island; thus, humidity regime is stronger than geography in promoting floristic links among limestone vegetation communities of die Caribbean. Almost every conclusion obtained from UPGMA and NMS was also taken from PASA, and so all diree techniques are compatible. The methodological, theoretical, and interpretive simplicity of PASA is what makes it an attractive procedure for studies that examine composition patterns.     

长白山北坡植物群落间物种共有度的海拔梯度变化

群落同各生活植物及种所有植物种的共有度,一定程度上反映了群落间的相关性及沿环境梯度的物种替代关系。应用梯度格局法在长白山北坡海拔700－2600m之间,海拔每上升100m设置一块样地,共计20块样地,应用Jaccard指数,对各海拔植物群落间物种共有度的海拔梯度变化进行了分析,不同海拔群落间物种的共有度,无论以哪一层次的植物来表达,基本都以与其最相邻海拔的群落之间为最高;如相邻海拔的两个群落属于不同植被类型,其共有度较低。群落间物种共有度的峰值与谷点反映了群落类型随海拔具有间断性变化,乔、灌、草各生活型物种的共有度以及所有植物物的共有度,在同一海拔差群落间的数值都非常接近,并均随着海拔的增加呈明显的下降趋势,表明群落各层次物种的构成有很大的相关性以及物种之间的共存性。     

Vegetation of Barton Peninsula in the neighbourhood of King Sejong Station (King George Island,maritime Antarctic)

Plant communities were studied on Barton Peninsula around King Sejong Station on King George Island, maritime Antarctic. The objective of this study was to document the occurrence and distribution of plant assemblages to provide the bases for monitoring the effects of environmental changes and human impact on the vegetation of this area. Approximately 47% of the investigated area was covered by vegetation. Crustose lichens showed the highest mean cover (21%) among vegetation components. The total mean cover of the four dominant taxa, together with the other three major subdominant components, i.e., Usnea spp., Andreaea spp. and Sanionia georgico-uncinata, was 78.2% of the total cover of all the species. Lichen cover and species diversity increased with altitude and the time of exposure from snow. Lichens contributed substantially more to the increased species density and diversity than did bryophytes. Ten plant communities were recognized within the study area. All of them belong to the Antarctic cryptogam tundra formation; they were grouped into four subformations: fruticose lichen and moss cushion subformation, crustose lichen subformation, moss carpet subformation and moss hummock subformation. The moss turf subformation was not found on this region. The Antarctic herb tundra formation was also not found; however, the populations of both Antarctic vascular plants have rapidly expanded around Barton Peninsula in recent years, which may allow development of the Antarctic herb tundra formation in the future.     

喀斯特土壤固氮微生物群落与植被、土壤的关系

固氮微生物作为土壤中重要的功能微生物群之一,其与地上植物群落、土壤环境之间的关系尚不清楚。在桂西北的环江县、都安县和大化县选取喀斯特典型植被类型(草丛、灌丛、次生林)建立样方,通过植被调查、测定土壤理化性质和构建克隆文库的方法,研究了土壤固氮微生物群落的结构与组成,分析了固氮微生物群落与植物群落、土壤理化性质之间的关系。结果表明:研究区典型植被类型土壤中的优势固氮微生物为慢生根瘤菌。Mantel相关性分析表明植物群落与固氮微生物群落显著相关(r=0.6116,P=0.011);结合PCo A分析和Venn图可看出,植物群落组成与结构越相似,土壤固氮微生物群落结构与组成也越相似。CCA分析前两轴的解释率之和仅为22.72%,其中总氮、有效态钾、有效态钙对固氮微生物群落的影响显著,这表明本研究涵盖的土壤理化性质指标并不能完全解释固氮微生物群落的变异,需要补充更多的土壤数据进行更深入的研究。由此可见,在喀斯特生态恢复过程中,不仅要关注地上植被群落的恢复与重建,同时也应重视地下功能微生物群落的恢复与重建。     

The influence of soil on vegetation structure and plant diversity in different tropical savannic and forest habitats

Aims Soil plays an important role in the formation and heterogeneity of habitats and thus can cause changes in vegetation structure and plant diversity. The differentiation between Cerrado/savanna and forest is well known, but the relationship between soil and habitats from savannic or forest formations still needs to be better understood, particularly in tropical ecotonal areas. We studied the association between attributes of plant communities, namely structure and diversity, and physicochemical characteristics of soils in the Caatinga domain at the transition to Cerrado in Brazil.Methods Chemical and physical analyses of soils were performed in samples of 38 plots from savannic formations and 30 plots from forest formations. Vegetation was characterized floristically and structurally in all plots, five habitats being assessed in each plant formation. Soil features and vegetation parameters were highly distinct among the different habitats.Important findings In general, forest habitats were more nutrient rich than savannic formation. Furthermore, soil variables showed effects both on vegetation structure and on its species diversity, more pronouncedly in the savannic formations. Habitats were structurally distinct, and diversity differed between savannic and forest communities; however, a higher differentiation occurred when the savannic formation habitats were compared among them. Although plant diversity did not differ among forest formation habitats, soil attributes showed a close relationship with edaphic factors and can contribute for similar vegetation. The soil–vegetation relationship in highly diverse ecotonal landscapes is important from the conservation biology point of view and aid in the execution of proactive plans for the maintenance of biodiversity. Thus, we noticed that diversity and soil behaves distinctly between savannic and forest communities.     

Soil zoology II: Colonization,distribution, and abundance of terrestrial Heteroptera in open landscapes of former brown coal mining areas

In the post-mining landscape of Lower Lusatia (eastern Germany), four mining areas were studied with respect to distribution and abundance of terrestrial Heteroptera. Colonization dynamics and formation of species communities in devasted open areas with different environmental conditions were investigated. In total, 127 species were found in 30 sampling sites, representing about 30% of all species of the state of Brandenburg. The ratio between purely phytophagous and mainly zoophagous species in younger (<20 years) and older sites (>20 years) did not differ much; the ratio between purely macropterous and partly brachypterous species was higher in younger sites. Macropterous species are able to colonize the sites more rapidly. Correspondence and cluster analyses revealed that community patterns are mainly determined by the architecture of the vegetation. Herb cover, grass cover, vegetation density and height, relation of grass versus herb dominance explained most of the community variances, while soil parameters and age of sites were of minor importance. Species number of Heteroptera is also strongly influenced by the plant species composition of sites. Except of young pioneer stages no significant differences in species number between undisturbed and disturbed sites were detected. Younger and older sites differed only slightly in species number of Heteroptera. Colonization by numerous species takes place rather rapidly, depending on the formation of special features of the vegetation and on the species pool of the surrounding area.     

Rapid, landscape scale responses in riparian tundra vegetation to exclusion of small and large mammalian herbivores

Productive tundra plant communities composed of a variety of fast growing herbaceous and woody plants are likely to attract mammalian herbivores. Such vegetation is likely to respond to different-sized herbivores more rapidly than currently acknowledged from the tundra. Accentuated by currently changing populations of arctic mammals there is a need to understand impacts of different-sized herbivores on the dynamics of productive tundra plant communities. Here we assess the differential effects of ungulate (reindeer) and small rodent herbivores (voles and lemmings) on high productive tundra vegetation. A spatially extensive exclosure experiment was run for three years on river sediment plains along two river catchments in low-arctic Norway. The river catchments were similar in species pools but differed in species abundance composition of both plants and vertebrate herbivores. Biomass of forbs, deciduous shrubs and silica-poor grasses increased by 40–50% in response to release from herbivory, whereas biomass of silica-rich grasses decreased by 50–75%. Hence both additive and compensatory effects of small rodents and reindeer exclusion caused these significant changes in abundance composition of the plant communities. Changes were also rapid, evident after only one growing season, and are among the fastest and strongest ever documented in Arctic vegetation. The rate of changes indicates a tight link between the dynamics of productive tundra vegetation and both small and large herbivores. Responses were however not spatially consistent, being highly different between the catchments. We conclude that despite similar species pools, variation in plant species abundance and herbivore species dynamics give different prerequisites for change.     

五台山林区典型人工林群落物种多样性研究

对山西五台山林区4种典型人工林群落物种多样性特征进行了定量研究,结果表明: 1 4种人工林群落灌木层和草本层的Simpson指数 D 和Shannon-Wienner指数 H′ 差异不显著,物种丰富度指数和均匀度指数 Jsw 差异显著,均匀度指数 Ea 差异极显著,草本层发育明显好于灌木层; 2 各人工群落尚处于演替初期阶段,林下植被发育常以禾本科阳生性植物为主; 3 对4种人工林群落灌草层物种多样性显著性检验结果显示,在灌草层物种多样性特征上,油松林与桦木林、山杨林多样性差异显著 P<0.05 ,其它群落差异不显著.山杨林物种多样性程度较高,油松林最差; 4 不同人工林群落物种总体多样性特征分析表明,桦木和山杨人工林群落总体α多样性与油松林差异显著,且多样性较大,阔叶林更有利于林下植被的发育和更新; 5 对人工生态系统物种多样性研究是退耕还林、天然林保护等生态环境工程的延伸,对于植被恢复后的生物学效果评价有重要意义.     

Avian community composition of kopjes in a heterogeneous landscape

We examined avian communities of kopjes (naturally occurring insular rock outcrops) in grassland and thorn tree woodland habitats in the Seronera region of Serengeti National Park, northwestern Tanzania. Although kopjes cover a small proportion of the Park's area, they provide resources that are uncommon in the Serengeti landscape and are known to host diverse, yet poorly documented, biotic communities. The primary objectives of this study were (1) to compare avian communities of kopjes with those of their surrounding habitat matrixes; (2) to compare the avian communities among kopjes; and (3) to determine the effects of kopje characteristics (e.g., size, vegetation cover, level of human disturbance and matrix type) on avian diversity and community composition. The avian communities of kopjes differed significantly from those of the matrixes in species composition and guild characteristics. Rare species, frugivorous species and nectarivorous species were more abundant on kopjes, whereas there were more ground-feeding species in matrix sites. Species richness was positively correlated with the area of kopjes covered by tall vegetation (5+ m), but neither total habitat area nor total vegetation cover significantly affected avian diversity. The surrounding habitat type, the fruiting phenology of Ficus and Commiphora trees and the level of human disturbance also influenced the presence and abundance of individual species and accounted for differences in community composition among kopjes. Our results show that kopjes support unique avian assemblages comprising many species that are otherwise rare in Serengeti, and consequently that kopjes may be local hotspots of avian diversity in the region.     

Plant communities of the Mt Wellington Range,Tasmania

Associations among species of vascular plants in twelve predefined vegetation zones on Mt Wellington, Tasmania, are described. The vegetation zones were based mainly on the dominant species of eucalypt contained therein, following an approach used previously by Martin (1940). The twelve zones were subsequently reduced to a total of six cluster groups using hierarchical classification procedures. Character species, in the sense of the Braun-Blanquet (1928) system of phytosociology, are identified and tabulated for each group. It is suggested that the division of a survey area into zones based upon dominant euealypts may be applicable to the study of vegetation communities in other parts of Tasmania.     

四川茂县土地岭大熊猫走廊带植被恢复格局及其与干扰的关系

通过样带调查和TWINSPAN、DCCA分析,从植物种、植物群落及其多样性与环境关系方面,研究了岷江上游土地岭大熊猫走廊带恢复植被的干扰状况。结果表明：应用TWINSPAN分类,并结合优势种组成、干扰状况分析及DCCA排序,可将植被划分为6个群落类型,同时划分出响应型、迟钝型、中度干扰忍耐型和重度干扰忍耐型4类干扰响应的植物类型。以样方物种和以样方多样性指数的DCCA分析结果基本一致,物种及群落的空间分布呈明显的聚集格局,反映其与环境因子间的密切关系。DCCA排序图上,海拔差、坡形、与公路距离、坡度及道路条数对群落和物种分布有明显的影响,与干扰相关性最大的坡度、样地道路数目、与公路间的距离3个因子反映了植被的干扰梯度。干扰对土地岭恢复植被影响显著,干扰降低了群落的物种多样性,同时阻碍了演替进程。     

Effects of ice and floods on vegetation in streams in cold regions: implications for climate change

Riparian zones support some of the most dynamic and species‐rich plant communities in cold regions. A common conception among plant ecologists is that flooding during the season when plants are dormant generally has little effect on the survival and production of riparian vegetation. We show that winter floods may also be of fundamental importance for the composition of riverine vegetation. We investigated the effects of ice formation on riparian and in‐stream vegetation in northern Sweden using a combination of experiments and observations in 25 reaches, spanning a gradient from ice‐free to ice‐rich reaches. The ice‐rich reaches were characterized by high production of frazil and anchor ice. In a couple of experiments, we exposed riparian vegetation to experimentally induced winter flooding, which reduced the dominant dwarf‐shrub cover and led to colonization of a species‐rich forb‐dominated vegetation. In another experiment, natural winter floods caused by anchor‐ice formation removed plant mimics both in the in‐stream and in the riparian zone, further supporting the result that anchor ice maintains dynamic plant communities. With a warmer winter climate, ice‐induced winter floods may first increase in frequency because of more frequent shifts between freezing and thawing during winter, but further warming and shortening of the winter might make them less common than today. If ice‐induced winter floods become reduced in number because of a warming climate, an important disturbance agent for riparian and in‐stream vegetation will be removed, leading to reduced species richness in streams and rivers in cold regions. Given that such regions are expected to have more plant species in the future because of immigration from the south, the distribution of species richness among habitats can be expected to show novel patterns.     

Effects of fire regime on plant species richness and composition differ among forest,woodland and heath vegetation

Question

Do the effects of fire regimes on plant species richness and composition differ among floristically similar vegetation types?

Location

Booderee National Park, south‐eastern Australia.

Methods

We completed floristic surveys of 87 sites in Sydney Coastal dry sclerophyll vegetation, where fire history records have been maintained for over 55 years. We tested for associations between different aspects of the recent fire history and plant species richness and composition, and whether these relationships were consistent among structurally defined forest, woodland and heath vegetation types.

Results

The relationship between fire regime variables and plant species richness and composition differed among vegetation types, despite the three vegetation types having similar species pools. Fire frequency was positively related to species richness in woodland, negatively related to species richness in heath, and unrelated to species richness in forest. These different relationships were explained by differences in the associations between fire history and species traits among vegetation types. The negative relationship between fire frequency and species richness in heath vegetation was underpinned by reduced occurrence of resprouting species at high fire frequency sites (more than four fires in 55 years). However, in forest and woodland vegetation, resprouting species were not negatively associated with fire frequency.

Conclusions

We hypothesize that differing relationships among vegetation types were underpinned by differences in fire behaviour, and/or biotic and abiotic conditions, leading to differences in plant species mortality and post‐fire recovery among vegetation types. Our findings suggest that even when there is a high proportion of shared species between vegetation types, fires can have very different effects on vegetation communities, depending on the structural vegetation type. Both research and management of fire regimes may therefore benefit from considering vegetation types as separate management units.     

Eco-Floristic studies of native plants of the Beer Hills along the Indus River in the districts Haripur and Abbottabad,Pakistan

The present study was conducted to elaborate vegetation composition structure to analyze role of edaphic and topographic factors on plant species distribution and community formation during 2013–14. A mixture of quadrat and transect methods were used. The size of quadrat for trees shrubs and herbs were 10 × 5, 5 × 2, 1 × 1 meter square respectively. Different phytosociological attribute were measured at each station. Primary results reported 123 plant species belong to 46 families. Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were dominant families with 8 species each. PCORD version 5 were used for Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analyses that initiated 4 plant communities within elevation range of 529–700 m from sea level. Indicator species analyses (ISA) were used to identify indicator species of each community. CANOCO Software (version 4.5) was used to measure the influence of edaphic and topographic variables on species composition, diversity and community formation. Whereas Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to measure the effect of environmental variables which showed elevation and aspect were the stronger environmental variable among topographic and CaCO₃ contents, electric conductivity, soil pH were the stronger edaphic factors in determination of vegetation and communities of the Bheer Hills. Grazing pressure was one of the main anthropogenic factors in this regard.     

三江并流地区干旱河谷植物物种多样性海拔梯度格局比较

在滇西北三江并流地区典型干旱河谷段, 在怒江、澜沧江和金沙江的东、西坡共设置了6条海拔梯度样带, 通过标准样地的植物群落调查, 分析各条样带植物的物种丰富度、物种更替率的海拔梯度格局, 并比较了地理和植被变量对分布格局的解释。干旱河谷植被带位于海拔3,000 m以下, 以灌丛和灌草丛为主, 其在各河谷的分布上限自西向东依次升高。植物物种丰富度的分布主要与海拔、流域、经纬度和植被带有关, 沿纬度和海拔梯度升高而显著增加的格局主要表现在草本层和灌木层, 灌木物种丰富度还呈现自西向东显著增加的趋势。怒江的灌木和草本种物种丰富度显著高于金沙江和澜沧江, 三条江的乔木种丰富度差异则不显著。森林带的样方草本物种丰富度显著低于灌草丛带样方, 并且还拥有后者没有的乔木种。不同样带的植物物种更替速率呈现了不一致的海拔梯度格局, 但均在样带海拔下部的灌草丛群落与海拔上部森林群落之间的交错带出现峰值。森林-灌草丛植被交错带在怒江样带处于海拔1,900-2,100 m处, 在澜沧江河谷位于海拔2,300-2,400 m, 在金沙江河谷位于海拔2,700-2,900 m。所有海拔样带的森林段或灌草丛段相对于同一样带不同植被段之间的物种更替程度为最小, 不仅小于同一流域不同样带相同植被段之间物种更替率的均值, 更小于所有样带相同植被段之间的更替率均值。在三条河流6条海拔样带的12个植被带段之间的物种更替变化中, 空间隔离因素可以解释34.2%, 而植被类型差异仅能解释不到0.5%。本研究结果显示了环境差异对不同植被类型物种丰富度的首要影响, 和各河流之间的空间隔离对植物群落构建和物种构成的主要作用。     

海南昌江石碌铁矿尾矿库区植被调查

实验开展了3个不同年代的海南石碌铁尾矿库区植被调查研究,根据记录数据计算了各样地物种的重要值、物种多样性指数和均匀度等。结果表明,铁尾矿库区内植物种类总体上来看较为稀少,不同尾矿库区内植物群落组成成分差异比较大。已经停止使用20a的尾矿区（样地1）内,自然定居的植物仅有44种,其中禾本科植物种类较多,其次为豆科植物和莎草科植物,表明这3个科的植物种类较其它科植物更容易适应这种环境,特别是禾本科的水竹（Phragmites karka）、雀稗（Paspalum commersonii）和豆科的田菁（Sesbaniacannabina）表现出较强的适应能力;刚停止使用2a的尾矿库区（样地2）内,自然定居的植物有21种,其中硬骨草（Panicum repens）、斑茅（Saccharum arundinaceum）和芒（Miscanthussinensis）等禾本科植物为该样地的优势种群;正在使用的尾矿库区（样地3）内物种单一,只有水竹（Pyllosacys karka）、芒（Miscanthus sinensis）和田菁（Sesbaniacannabina）三种植物能在该恶劣的生境中顽强地生长和发育,表现出极强的适应能力。结果还表明了3个不同年代库区的植物群落的组成与结构存在明显的演替顺序差异,样地3单种优势明显,从样地3到样地1,这种优势依次减弱,物种多样性指数也依次增加,这表现出由较少先锋物种种类组成的简单群落向稳定复杂群落方向演替的趋势,反映了植物群落结构随演替时间的延长越来越趋向复杂化。在同一个尾矿库区内土壤的不同水分含量和理化性质会对植物的定居与群落的组成关系密切。     

Zoogeography of a South African Province: A framework for management

State‐level conservation in South Africa is structured around distinct political entities (i.e. municipalities). This is problematic because an ecological approach that considers species distribution is required to delineate meaningful management units. To do so, vegetation types can be used as management units—however, it is uncertain whether vertebrate communities are associated with vegetation types as defined by the national vegetation map. Here, we investigate mammal diversity patterns within and among biomes (savannah and grassland) and bioregions and test whether different mammal communities were associated with different vegetation types. We used an extensive database of species occurrences in the North West Province. We found that species richness was higher in the savannah than grassland biome. Beta diversity was higher within the savannah than grassland biome, due to greater environmental heterogeneity, though one grassland bioregion was similar to the savannah bioregions. Mammal communities were significantly different among bioregions, but not biomes, suggesting mammal communities are congruent with vegetation type at finer scales (i.e. bioregional), but not at coarser scales (biomes). It thus makes sense to use a bioregional framework to design mammal management strategies. The invasion of grasslands by savannah species should be monitored, specifically given the predicted changes in climate.     

历山自然保护区猪尾沟森林群落植被格局及环境解释

应用TWINSPAN、DCA和DCCA,从植物种,植物群落与环境的生态关系方面,研究历山自然保护区猪尾沟森林群落的植被分布格局,并给予合理的环境解释。结果如下：（1）采用TWINSPAN数量分类方法,将植被划分为9个群落类型。（2）对于特定的研究区域猪尾沟,制约森林群落类型,植物种分布格局的主要因素是海拔梯度,即水、热两个环境因子。（3）DCCA排序图明显反映出排序轴的生态意义,第一轴基本上突出反映了各植物群落所在环境的海拔梯度,即热量因素,沿第一轴从左到右,海拔逐渐升高,植物群落或植物种对热量要求降低;第二轴主要表现了各植物群落或植物种所在环境的坡度,坡向,即水分和光照因素,沿第二轴从下到上,坡度渐缓,坡向渐向阳。     

Vegetation restoration patterns and their relationships with disturbance on the Giant Panda Corridor of Tudiling, Southwest China

Human activities such as deforestation, cultivation, and overgrazing have contributed to the destruction of forest ecosystems in the upper Minjiang River basin for a long time, which has led to the reduction in forest coverage and biodiversity. On the Giant Panda Corridor of Tudiling in this basin, the effects of the existing disturbance regimes on plant communities after the vegetation restoration in the 1980s were assessed, and the community composition, the species diversity and their relationships with environmental factors significantly associated with the disturbance were analyzed using the transect sampling method, the two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) and the detrended canonical correspondence analysis (DCCA). The results were as follows: communities could be classified into six types, and species were clustered into four functional groups (responsive to disturbance, retarded disturbance, resistant to intermediate disturbance, and resistant to heavy disturbance) based on both TWINSPAN and DCCA. DCCA with species composition of plots is similar to that with species diversity of plots. The communities were separated into distinct groups along the DCCA axis, and this pattern was significantly correlated with environmental factors. Elevation differences, shape, slope, distance to roads, and the number of paths in the plots had an evident influence on the distribution of the species and communities. Environmental factors including slope, distance to roads, and the number of paths revealed the gradient of disturbance among the communities along the DCCA axis. High disturbance intensity caused significantly lower species diversity and inhibited the regeneration of vegetation compared with the more diverse undisturbed communities. Artificial restoration was more effective than natural restoration in maintaining high species diversity. The process of succession was inhibited in natural restoration because of the failure of tree establishment, growth, and survival during regeneration.