Description and Prediction of the Development of Metabolic Syndrome: A Longitudinal Analysis Using a Markov Model Approach

Background

Delineating the natural history of metabolic syndrome (MetS) is prerequisite to prevention. This study aimed to build Markov models to simulate each component’s progress and to test the effect of different initial states on the development of MetS.

Methods

MetS was defined with revised AHA/NHLBI criteria. Each reversible multistate Markov chain consisted of 8 states (no component, five isolated component states, 2-component state, and MetS state). Yearly transition probabilities were calculated from a five-year population-based follow up studywhich enrolled 2,247 individuals with mean aged 32.4 years at study entry.

Results

In men, high BP or a 2-component state was most likely to initiate the progress of MetS. In women, abdominal obesity or low HDL were the most likely initiators. Metabolic components were likely to occur together. The development of MetS was an increasing monotonic function of time. MetS was estimated to develop within 15 years in 12.7% of young men with no component, and 2 components developed in 16.3%. MetS was estimated to develop in 10.6% of women with at the age of 47, and 2 components developed in 14.3%. MetS was estimated to develop in 24.6% of men and 27.6% of women with abdominal obesity, a rate higher than in individuals initiating with no component.

Conclusions

This modeling study allows estimation of the natural history of MetS. Men tended to develop this syndrome sooner than women did, i.e., before their fifth decade of life. Individuals with 1 or 2 components showed increased development of MetS.     

Serum Adiponectin Confers Little Protection Against Diabetes and Hypertension in Turkish Men

We determined serum adiponectin's role as a biomarker of metabolic syndrome (MetS), type 2 diabetes (DM) and hypertension among Turkish adults who have a high prevalence of MetS. Individuals with measured serum adiponectin concentrations, constituting a random sample of Turkish adults, were studied cross‐sectionally. MetS was identified by criteria of the Adult Treatment Panel‐III modified for male abdominal obesity. Median age of 547 men and 652 women was 54 years. MetS was identified in 46%. Linear regression analysis among nine variables revealed homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) index in both sexes and C‐reactive protein (CRP) only in men as inversely associated covariates of adiponectin, and sex hormone‐binding globulin (SHBG) as positive covariate in women. Age‐adjusted sex‐specifically dichotomized high vs. low adiponectin levels were significantly associated with DM (odds ratio (OR) 0.55, P = 0.01) and hypertension (OR 0.64, P = 0.012) in women, but not in men. Further adjustment for smoking status and presence of high/low BMI did not alter this sex‐based relationship. As regards association with MetS, low adiponectin and high BMI interacted significantly in each sex. Yet adiponectin was associated only in men additively to the simultaneously adjusted five MetS components. We conclude that adiponectin concentrations, clearly linked to metabolic disorders, may diverge among sexes regarding protection against cardiometabolic risk through anti‐inflammatory or antioxidative function, Turkish men alone revealing significant dysfunction independent of obesity. This dysfunction may underlie also the association of adiponectin levels with MetS in men to be independent of the MetS components.     

Testosterone,Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin and the Metabolic Syndrome in Men: An Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

Background

Low total testosterone (TT) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations have been associated with the metabolic syndrome (MetS) in men, but the reported strength of association varies considerably.

Objectives

We aimed to investigate whether associations differ across specific subgroups (according to age and body mass index (BMI)) and individual MetS components.

Data sources

Two previously published meta-analyses including an updated systematic search in PubMed and EMBASE.

Study Eligibility Criteria

Cross-sectional or prospective observational studies with data on TT and/or SHBG concentrations in combination with MetS in men.

Methods

We conducted an individual participant data meta-analysis of 20 observational studies. Mixed effects models were used to assess cross-sectional and prospective associations of TT, SHBG and free testosterone (FT) with MetS and its individual components. Multivariable adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated and effect modification by age and BMI was studied.

Results

Men with low concentrations of TT, SHBG or FT were more likely to have prevalent MetS (ORs per quartile decrease were 1.69 (95% CI 1.60-1.77), 1.73 (95% CI 1.62-1.85) and 1.46 (95% CI 1.36-1.57) for TT, SHBG and FT, respectively) and incident MetS (HRs per quartile decrease were 1.25 (95% CI 1.16-1.36), 1.44 (95% 1.30-1.60) and 1.14 (95% 1.01-1.28) for TT, SHBG and FT, respectively). Overall, the magnitude of associations was largest in non-overweight men and varied across individual components: stronger associations were observed with hypertriglyceridemia, abdominal obesity and hyperglycaemia and associations were weakest for hypertension.

Conclusions

Associations of testosterone and SHBG with MetS vary according to BMI and individual MetS components. These findings provide further insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms linking low testosterone and SHBG concentrations to cardiometabolic risk.     

Trends in obesity and its distribution: data from the Northern Sweden MONICA Survey, 1986-2004

Objective: Obesity, especially abdominal, is a risk factor for many diseases. This study explored trends in the prevalence of general and abdominal obesity, 1986–2004, in northern Sweden. Methods and Procedures: Cross‐sectional population surveys were performed in 1986, 1990, 1994, 1999, and 2004; 250 men and 250 women aged 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, and 55–64 years (from 1994, also 65–74 years) were randomly selected; the overall participation rate was 77%. Anthropometric data were used. Results: Weight and BMI increased in all men, most significantly in men aged 25–64 years (P < 0.0005). Weight increased in women aged 25–64 years (P < 0.005) and BMI in women aged 25–44 years (P < 0.005). Prevalence of obesity (BMI ≥ 30) increased significantly in men aged 25–44 and 55–74 years (P < 0.005; for men 65–74 years old, P < 0.05) and in women aged 25–44 years (P < 0.005). Waist circumference decreased significantly between 1986 and 1990 in all women (P < 0.005) and in men aged 55–64 years (P < 0.05). After 1990 waist circumference increased, most markedly so in women; by 2004 circumference measurements for women, and for men aged 55–64 years, were equal to those of 1986, while for men aged 25–54 years they were higher. Prevalence of abdominal obesity has increased since 1990, most markedly so in women aged 45–64 years (P < 0.0005). Discussion: The rapid increase in both general and central obesity raises concern for the future; increasing abdominal obesity in women is particularly alarming.     

Risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome associated with FTO gene variants discloses clinically relevant gender difference among Turks

Gene variations in the fat mass- and obesity-associated gene (FTO) have shown controversial associations with obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in several populations. We explored the association of FTO gene with obesity, MetS, and insulin-related parameters separately in men and women. Two SNPs in the FTO, gene rs9939609 and rs1421085, were genotyped by the Taqman System in 1967 adults (mean age of the whole group 50.1 ± 12.0; 48.4 % male). A random sample of the Turkish Adult Risk Factor cohort was cross-sectionally analyzed. Both SNPs exhibited strong linkage disequilibrium (r² = 0.85) and minor alleles were associated with risk of obesity in women and of MetS in men. Carriers of the rs1421085 C-allele exhibited higher body mass index (BMI) in each gender. Adjusted fasting insulin and HOMA index were significantly higher in C-allele carriers in men alone. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated significantly increased likelihood for obesity in female C-risk allele carriers (OR 1.61; 95 % CI 1.19–2.18), after adjustment for age, smoking status, alcohol usage, physical activity grade and presence of diabetes mellitus. Male C-allele carriers were at increased risk for MetS (OR 1.44; 95 % CI 1.07–1.95), adjusted for age, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity. Further adjustment for BMI attenuated the MetS risk, indicating interaction between C-allele, gender and BMI. The FTO gene in Turkish adults contributes independently to obesity in women and—by interacting with BMI—to MetS and insulin resistance in men.     

Thyroid function and metabolic syndrome in the population-based LifeLines cohort study

Background

The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a combination of unfavourable health factors which includes abdominal obesity, dyslipidaemia, elevated blood pressure and impaired fasting glucose. Earlier studies have reported a relationship between thyroid function and some MetS components or suggested that serum free thyroxine (FT4) or free triiodothyronine (FT3) levels within the normal range were independently associated with insulin resistance. We assessed how thyroid function relates to MetS prevalence in a large population-based study.

Methods

Data of 26,719 people of western European descent, aged 18–80 years from the Dutch LifeLines Cohort study, all with normal thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), FT4 and FT3 levels (electrochemiluminescent immunoassay, Roche Modular E170 Analyzer), were available. MetS was defined with the revised National Cholesterol Education Programs Adults Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) criteria. We calculated prevalence of all MetS components according to TSH, FT4 and FT3 quartiles.

Results

At similar TSH levels and age (mean 45 yrs), men had significantly higher levels of FT4, FT3, blood pressure (BP), heart rate, total and LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), and creatinine, but lower HDL-cholesterol compared to women (all p < 0.001). In total, 11.8% of women and 20.7% of men had MetS. In men, lower FT4 levels were associated with higher prevalence of MetS and all MetS components. In women, lower FT4 quartile was only associated with a higher prevalence of elevated TG, waist circumference, and MetS. However, when corrected for confounding factors like age, BMI, current smoking and alcohol consumption, a significant relationship was found between FT3 and three MetS components in men, and all five components in women. Moreover, the highest quartiles of FT3 and the FT3FT4 ratio predicted a 49% and 67% higher prevalence of MetS in men, and a 62 and 80% higher prevalence in women.

Conclusions

When corrected for possible confounding factors, higher plasma levels of FT3 are associated with several components of the MetS. Only in men, lower FT4 is related to MetS. In the highest FT3 and FT3FT4 quartiles, there is a 50–80% increased risk of having MetS compared to the lowest quartile. Further studies are needed to assess the possible causality of this relationship.

     

Oxidative protein damage is associated with poor grip strength among older women living in the community.

Grip strength, an indicator of muscle strength, has been shown to be a predictor of poor outcomes among older adults. Protein carbonylation, an indicator of oxidative damage to proteins, leads to cellular dysfunction and a decline in tissue function. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of sarcopenia. The objective was to determine whether serum protein carbonyl concentrations are associated with grip strength in older women living in the community. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 672 women, aged 65 and older, from the Women's Health and Aging Study (WHAS) I, the one-third most disabled women residing in the community in Baltimore, MD. Protein carbonyl and grip strength were measured in each patient. In a multivariate analysis adjusting for age, race, body mass index, and Mini-Mental Status Examination score, protein carbonyls (nmol/mg) were associated with grip strength (beta = -6.77, P < 0.01). The statistical association was unchanged after the analysis adjusted for hypertension, congestive heart failure, and depression. Ordered logistic regression models adjusted for the above factors showed that protein carbonyls are associated with increased odds of being in the lower quartiles of grip strength (odds ratio 8.74, 95% confidence interval 1.06-71.89, P = 0.043). These results suggest oxidative protein damage is independently associated with low grip strength among older women living in the community. Increased oxidative stress may be contributing to loss of muscle strength in older adults.     

Plasma heat shock protein 72 as a biomarker of sarcopenia in elderly people

Sarcopenia is a geriatric syndrome in which there is a decrease of muscle mass and strength with aging. In age-related loss of muscle strength, there are numerous observations supporting the assertion that neural factors mediate muscle strength. A possible contributing cause may be that aging changes systemic extracellular heat shock protein (eHsp)72 activity. The present study was designed to assess the plasma levels of eHsp72 in elderly people and to investigate its potential interaction with components of sarcopenia. A total of 665 men and women participated in an official medical health examination and an integrated health examination, including psychological and physical fitness tests. Blood samples were assayed for levels of plasma Hsp72, serum C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, and regular biomedical parameters. We found that higher Hsp72 in plasma is associated with lower muscle mass, weaker grip strength, and slower walking speed, and may be a potential biomarker of sarcopenia in elderly people. This finding was supported by other results in the present study: (1) older age and shrinking body and lower hemoglobin levels, all of which characterize sarcopenia, were related to higher eHsp72 tertiles and (2) the ORs of the highest tertile of eHsp72 for the lowest tertiles of muscle mass, grip strength, and walking speed were 2.7, 2.6, and 1.8, respectively. These ORs were independent of age, sex, and the incidence of related diseases. Our results would reveal that eHsp72 in plasma is linked to sarcopenia factors and is a potential biomarker or predictor of sarcopenia.     

First nationwide survey of prevalence of overweight, underweight, and abdominal obesity in Iranian adults

Objective: The goal was to estimate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, underweight, and abdominal obesity among the adult population of Iran. Research Methods and Procedures: A nationwide cross‐sectional survey was conducted from December 2004 to February 2005. The selection was conducted by stratified probability cluster sampling through household family members in Iran. Weight, height, and waist circumference (WC) of 89,404 men and women 15 to 65 years of age (mean, 39.2 years) were measured. The criteria for underweight, normal‐weight, overweight, and Class I, II, and III obesity were BMI <18.5, 18.5 to 24.9, 25 to 29.9, 30 to 34.9, 35 to 39.9, and ≥40 (kg/m²), respectively. Abdominal obesity was defined as WC ≥102 cm in men and ≥88 cm in women. Results: The age‐adjusted means for BMI and WC were 24.6 kg/m² in men and 26.5 kg/m² in women and 86.6 cm in men and 89.6 cm in women, respectively. The age‐adjusted prevalence of overweight or obesity (BMI ≥25) was 42.8% in men and 57.0% in women; 11.1% of men and 25.2% of women were obese (BMI ≥30), while 6.3% of men and 5.2% of women were underweight. Age, low physical activity, low educational attainment, marriage, and residence in urban areas were strongly associated with obesity. Abdominal obesity was more common among women than men (54.5% vs. 12.9%) and greater with older age. Discussion: Excess body weight appears to be common in Iran. More women than men present with overweight and abdominal obesity. Prevention and treatment strategies are urgently needed to address the health burden of obesity.     

Ultrasound-Derived Abdominal Muscle Thickness Better Detects Metabolic Syndrome Risk in Obese Patients than Skeletal Muscle Index Measured by Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry

Sarcopenia has never been diagnosed based on site-specific muscle loss, and little is known about the relationship between site-specific muscle loss and metabolic syndrome (MetS) risk factors. To this end, this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between site-specific muscle size and MetS risk factors. Subjects were 38 obese men and women aged 40–82 years. Total body fat and lean body mass were assessed by whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan. Muscle thickness (MTH) was measured using B-mode ultrasound scanning in six body regions. Subjects were classified into general obesity (GO) and sarcopenic obesity (SO) groups using the threshold values of one standard deviation below the sex-specific means of either MTH or skeletal muscle index (SMI) measured by DXA. MetS risk score was acquired by standardizing and summing the following continuously distributed variables: visceral fat area, mean blood pressure, HbA1c, and serum triglyceride / high density lipoprotein cholesterol, to obtain the Z-score. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the MetS risk score was independently associated with abdominal MTH in all subjects, but not with MTH in other muscle regions, including the thigh. Although HbA1c and the number of MetS risk factors in the SO group were significantly higher than those in the GO group, there were no significant differences between GO and SO groups as defined by SMI. Ultrasound-derived abdominal MTH would allow a better assessment of sarcopenia in obese patients and can be used as an alternative to the conventionally-used SMI measured by DXA.     

Association between Childhood Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome: Evidence from a Large Sample of Chinese Children and Adolescents

Data about metabolic syndrome (MetS) in children is limited in China. We aimed to assess the prevalence of MetS related components, and their association with obesity. Data were collected as part of a representative study on MetS among 19593 children, aged 6–18 years old in Beijing. General obesity was assessed by body mass index (BMI) and central obesity by waist circumference. Finger capillary blood tests were used to assess triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC) and impaired fasting glucose (IFG). Vein blood samples were collected from a subsample of 3814 children aged 10–18 years to classify MetS. MetS was defined according to the International Diabetes Federation 2007 definition. The associations between MetS related components and the degree and type of obesity were tested using logistic regression models. The prevalence of overweight, obesity, high blood pressure, elevated TG, TC and IFG were13.6%, 5.8%, 8.5%, 8.8%, 1.2% and 2.5%, respectively. Compared with normal weight children, overweight and obese children were more likely to have other MetS related components. In the subsample of 3814 children aged 10–18 years, the prevalence of MetS was much higher in obese subjects than in their normal weight counterparts (27.6% vs. 0.2%). Children with both general and central obesity had the highest prevalence of MetS. Compared with normal weight children, overweight and obese children were more likely to have MetS (overweight: OR = 67.33, 95%CI = 21.32–212.61; obesity: OR = 249.99, 95% CI = 79.51–785.98). Prevalence of MetS related components has reached high level among Beijing children who were overweight or obese. The association between metabolic disorders and obesity was strong.     

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its relation to body composition in a Chinese rural population

Objective: To investigate the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) with three different working definitions in a rural Chinese population and to examine its relation to body composition. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 18,630 adults 25 to 64 years old (mean age, 45.8 years; 51.2% men) from 5686 families were enrolled from Anhui province of China during 2004 to 2005. Anthropometric measurement, body composition, blood pressure, plasma lipids, and fasting glucose and insulin and a questionnaire‐based interview were obtained from each participant. Three different working definitions for MetS, including the U.S. National Cholesterol Education Program's Adult Treatment Panel III, a modified Adult Treatment Panel III that adopts the World Health Organization's criterion for central obesity in Asian populations, and one recently proposed by the International Diabetes Federation, were used in the study. Results: According to the three definitions, the age‐adjusted prevalence of MetS for adults 25 to 64 years old was 3.2%, 4.9%, and 3.9% in men and 7.2%, 11.5%, and 10.9% in women, respectively. MetS prevalence increases significantly with age in women, but not in men. Body fat percentage and BMI and waist circumference were significantly associated with each component of MetS, especially with triglyceride level, insulin resistance index, and number of MetS components (r = 0.28 to 0.49). Discussion: The age‐adjusted prevalence of MetS in our study population is lower than that reported in other urban Chinese populations. Significant gender differences in MetS prevalence were observed. The waist circumference is a good surrogate for abdominal fat percentage.     

Melanoma in people aged 65 and over in Scotland, 1979-89.

OBJECTIVE--Detailed analysis of primary cutaneous melanoma first diagnosed in Scotland in patients aged 65 and over. DESIGN--Comparison of changing incidence, sex distribution, site, histogenetic type, tumour thickness, and prognosis of all primary cutaneous melanomas in patients aged 65 and over diagnosed in Scotland in the 11 years 1979-89 with similar data for patients aged under 65. SETTING--Data were obtained from the Scottish Melanoma Group''s database, established in 1979, which aims to record detailed clinical, pathological, and surgical follow up details of all primary cutaneous melanomas registered in Scotland. PATIENTS--1430 patients (954 women, 476 men) aged 65 and over; comprising over a third of the 3903 patients with primary melanoma recorded for all age groups in Scotland during this period. RESULTS--The overall incidence of melanoma in patients aged 65 and over increased from 12.2/100,000 in 1979 to 20.7/100,000 in 1989, with the greatest increase seen in older men, from 7.8/100,000 in 1979 to 18.0/100,000 in 1989. The site most commonly affected was the face in both men and women (33% of all tumours). The most common histogenetic type was superficial spreading melanoma. 526 patients (37%) had melanomas with a tumour thickness of 3.5 mm or greater in the older age group, compared with 453 patients (18%) in those aged under 65. The highest proportion of thick tumours was seen in older men. Five year survival figures for 616 patients diagnosed between 1979 and 1984 were 88%, 66%, and 47% for thin, intermediate, and thick tumours respectively. Overall five year survival for the older age group was 64% compared with 78% for the younger age group. CONCLUSION--The increase in melanoma in the elderly and the high proportion of thick tumours, especially in men, require a specific educational programme for both primary and secondary prevention directed towards the older population.     

Waist Circumference and Abdominal Obesity among Older Adults: Patterns,Prevalence and Trends

Objectives

To describe the patterns and trends in waist circumference and abdominal obesity for those aged 70–89 contrasting the standard and new age-related cut-points, and to investigate how they vary with time, age and educational level.

Methods

The subjects were 7129 men and 9244 women aged 70–89 years who participated in the Health Survey for England during 1993–2010. The outcome measures were the percentiles of waist circumference and standard and new indicators of abdominal obesity based on waist circumference. Binomial and quantile regression were used to investigate the relationship with key explanatory variables.

Results

The distribution of waist circumference among community-dwelling older adults in England has shifted upwards since 1993 (an increase in median of 4.5 cm in men and 5.1 cm in women). The prevalence of abdominal obesity has increased, while those in the low-risk group have decreased. Abdominal obesity was higher in those aged 70–79 compared to 80–89, and in those who left education earlier. The prevalence of abdominal obesity varies considerably with new and standard cut-points, which makes it impractical to use the new ones on a population that includes subjects across the adult age range.

Conclusions

Obesity is increasing among the elderly, but more work is needed on devising age-appropriate indicators of high risk based on waist circumference.     

Central obesity as a precursor to the metabolic syndrome in the AusDiab study and Mauritius

Evidence from epidemiologic studies that central obesity precedes future metabolic change and does not occur concurrently with the appearance of the blood pressure, glucose, and lipid abnormalities that characterize the metabolic syndrome (MetS) has been lacking. Longitudinal surveys were conducted in Mauritius in 1987, 1992, and 1998, and in Australia in 2000 and 2005 (AusDiab). This analysis included men and women (aged > or = 25 years) in three cohorts: AusDiab 2000-2005 (n = 5,039), Mauritius 1987-1992 (n = 2,849), and Mauritius 1987-1998 (n = 1,999). MetS components included waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, fasting and 2-h postload plasma glucose, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin sensitivity (HOMA-S) (representing insulin sensitivity). Linear regression was used to determine which baseline components predicted deterioration in other MetS components over 5 years in AusDiab and 5 and 11 years in Mauritius, adjusted for age, sex, and ethnic group. Baseline waist circumference predicted deterioration (P < 0.01) in four of the other six MetS variables tested in AusDiab, five of six in Mauritius 1987-1992, and four of six in Mauritius 1987-1998. In contrast, an increase in waist circumference between baseline and follow-up was only predicted by insulin sensitivity (HOMA-S) at baseline, and only in one of the three cohorts. These results suggest that central obesity plays a central role in the development of the MetS and appears to precede the appearance of the other MetS components.     

Increased Medical Costs in Elders With the Metabolic Syndrome are Most Evident With Hospitalization of Men

BackgroundLittle is known about health care costs associated with the metabolic syndrome (MetS).ObjectiveWe assessed annualized health care costs and health outcomes for both genders in different health care settings among representative Taiwanese elders.MethodsThe Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan (1999–2000) provided 1378 individuals aged 65 years or older with known MetS status. Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan files were linked to National Health Insurance records (1999–2006). Student t tests and multiple regression models were used to assess expenditures in total and in 6 services: inpatient, ambulatory care, dental care, traditional Chinese medicine, emergency care, and contracted pharmacy. The Cox model was used to assess gender effect on all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality, whereas logistic regression was used for that on cardiovascular disease hospitalization. The 5 MetS component costs were evaluated by multiple regressions.ResultsMetS affected 29% of men and 48% of women. After full adjustment, those with MetS had 1.30 (95% CI, 1.11–1.52), men had 1.43 (95% CI, 1.20–1.70), and women had 1.19 (95% CI, 0.93–1.52) times higher costs than those without MetS. Compared with no MetS, MetS costs were increased 2.94-fold for inpatient care (95% CI, 1.23–7.10) and 1.30-fold for ambulatory care for men (95% CI, 1.12–1.52), whereas ambulatory MetS costs were increased 1.28-fold for women (95% CI, 1.05–1.57). MetS was associated with higher risk of cardiovascular disease hospitalization in men (adjusted odds ratio, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.20–2.58) but not in women (adjusted odds ratio, 1.08; 95% CI, 0.67–1.75). Among those with MetS, all-cause and cardiovascular mortality were comparable between men and women. Of the MetS components, low HDL cholesterol had the greatest affect on costs, more so in men (2.23-fold) than women (1.58-fold).ConclusionsIn people with MetS, service costs were greater overall, significantly for men, but not women, and these increased costs were evident for men who experienced hospitalization, but not women. At the same time, cardiovascular and all-cause mortalities were not significantly different by gender in regard to MetS in Taiwanese elders.     

Cross-Sectional Assessment of Nut Consumption and Obesity,Metabolic Syndrome and Other Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: The PREDIMED Study

Introduction

Prospective studies have consistently suggested that nut consumption is inversely related to fatal and non-fatal coronary heart disease. Limited data are available on the epidemiological associations between nut intake and cardiometabolic risk factors.

Objective

To evaluate associations between frequency of nut consumption and prevalence of cardiometabolic risk factors [obesity, metabolic syndrome (MetS), type-2 diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia] in a Mediterranean population at high cardiovascular risk.

Materials and Methods

Cross-sectional study of 7,210 men and women (mean age, 67 y) recruited into the PREDIMED study. MetS was defined by the harmonized ATPIII and IDF criteria. Diabetes and hypertension were assessed by clinical diagnosis and dyslipidemia (high triglycerides, low HDL-cholesterol, and hypercholesterolemia) by lipid analyses. Nut consumption was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire and categorized as <1, 1–3, and >3 servings/wk. Control of confounding was done with multivariate logistic regression.

Results

Compared to participants consuming <1 serving/wk of nuts, those consuming >3 servings/wk had lower adjusted odds ratios (OR) for obesity (0.61, 95% confidence interval 0.54 to 0.68; P-trend <0.001), MetS (0.74, 0.65 to 0.85; P-trend<0.001), and diabetes (0.87, 0.78 to 0.99; P-trend = 0.043). Higher nut consumption was also associated with lower risk of the abdominal obesity MetS criterion (OR 0.68, 0.60 to 0.79; P-trend<0.001). No significant associations were observed for the MetS components high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, or elevated fasting glucose.

Conclusions

Nut consumption was inversely associated with the prevalence of general obesity, central obesity, MetS, and diabetes in subjects at high cardiovascular risk.     

Alcohol consumption and mortality: modelling risks for men and women at different ages

ObjectiveTo estimate the relation between alcohol consumption and risk of death, the level of alcohol consumption at which risk is least, and how these vary with age and sex.DesignAnalysis using published systematic reviews and population data.SettingEngland and Wales in 1997.ResultsA direct dose-response relation exists between alcohol consumption and risk of death in women aged 16-54 and in men aged 16-34. At older ages the relation is U shaped. The level at which the risk is lowest increases with age, reaching 3 units a week in women aged over 65 and 8 units a week in men aged over 65. The level at which the risk is increased by 5% above this minimum is 8 units a week in women aged 16-24 and 5 units a week in men aged 16-24, increasing to 20 and 34 units a week in women and men aged over 65, respectively.ConclusionsSubstantially increased risks of all cause mortality can occur even in people drinking lower than recommended limits, and especially among younger people.

What is already known on this topic

Non-drinkers and heavy drinkers have higher all cause mortality rates than light drinkers—the U shaped curveThe precise shape and location of the U are likely to depend on age and sex, but this has not been quantified

What this study adds

The level of alcohol consumption that carries the lowest mortality ranges from 0 in men and women aged under 35 to 3 units a week in women aged over 65 and 8 units a week in men aged over 65The level of alcohol consumption that carries a 5% increase in mortality increases with age from 8 to 20 units a week in women and from 5 to 34 units a week in menOur calculations were for England and Wales in 1997: nadirs are likely to be lower in the future and in countries with less ischaemic heart disease     

The association of BMI with functional status and self-rated health in US adults

Objective: To examine the association of BMI with functional status and self‐rated health among US adults and how the association differs by age and sex. Methods and Procedures: All analyses are based on the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), 1997–2005, a yearly, representative study of the US household population. We pooled all survey years and fitted logistic regression for the two sexes and three age strata (ages 18–44, 45–64, and ≥65). Results: Our study found that although underweight and severe obesity are consistently associated with increased disability and poorer health status, overweight and moderate obesity show associations that vary considerably by age and sex. For men, the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for disability and poor/fair self‐rated health tended to be lowest among overweight persons, especially for ages ≥45. Among men with moderate obesity, the risk of disability was elevated for ages 18–44 but lower for ages ≥65. For women, the adjusted ORs for disability and poor/fair self‐rated health tended to be lowest among normal‐weight persons, particularly for ages ≤45. Compared to normal‐weight counterparts, overweight women aged ≥65 had a lower risk of disability but a somewhat elevated risk of poor/fair self‐rated health. Discussion: The results suggest that the association of BMI with functional status and self‐rated health varies significantly across ages and sexes. The variations in the association of BMI with functional status and self‐rated health suggest that a single “ideal body weight category” may not be appropriate for all persons or all health outcomes.     

Serum leptin concentration,obesity, and insulin resistance in Western Samoans: cross sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To measure serum leptin concentrations in the Polynesian population of Western Samoa and to examine epidemiological associations of leptin with anthropometric, demographic, behavioural, and metabolic factors in this population with a high prevalence of obesity and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. DESIGN: Cross sectional study, leptin concentration being measured in a subgroup of a population based sample. SUBJECTS: 240 Polynesian men and women aged 28-74 years were selected to cover the full range of age, body mass index, and glucose tolerance. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Serum leptin, insulin, and glucose concentrations; anthropometric measures; physical activity; and area of residence. RESULTS: Leptin concentrations were correlated with body mass index (r = 0.80 in men, 0.79 in women) and waist circumference (r = 0.82 in men, 0.78 in women) but less so with waist to hip ratio. At any body mass index, leptin concentration was higher in women than men (geometric mean adjusted for body mass index 15.3 v 3.6 pg/l, P < 0.001). Leptin concentration also correlated with fasting insulin concentration (r = 0.63 in men, 0.64 in women) and insulin concentration 2 hours after a glucose load (r = 0.58 in men, 0.52 in women). These associations remained significant after controlling for body mass index; effects of physical activity and of rural or urban living on leptin concentration were eliminated after adjusting for obesity, except values remained high in urban men. 78% of variance in leptin was explained by a model including fasting insulin concentration, sex, body mass index, and a body mass index by sex interaction term. Similar results were obtained if waist circumference replaced body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: The strong relation of leptin with obesity is consistent with leptin production being proportional of mass to adipose tissue. The relation with insulin independent of body mass index suggests a possible role for leptin in insulin resistance or hyperinsulinaemia.