Targeting p53 for enhanced radio- and chemo-sensitivity

p53 acts as a central mediator of the cellular response to stressful stimuli. The growth-suppressive function of p53 is lost with mutation and this occurs commonly in human cancer. In addition to suppressing cancer development and progression, wild-type p53 further confers chemo-sensitivity and radio-sensitivity upon tumor cells. Accumulated evidence over the last two decades that wild-type p53 activity is required for the efficacy of radiation and chemotherapy has led to considerable interest in development of strategies to restore normal p53 function in tumors with defective p53-dependent signaling. A number of promising discoveries, based on the knowledge of structural and functional basis of p53 mutation, p53 degradation by MDM2 and p53 family proteins, provide a foundation for future drug design. Here we review the role of p53 in enhancing the sensitivity from radiation and chemotherapy and discuss current progress on therapies targeting p53.     

The p53 family in nervous system development and disease

The p53 family, consisting of the tumor suppressors p53, p63 and p73, play a vital role as regulators of survival and apoptosis in the developing, adult and injured nervous system. These proteins function as key survival and apoptosis checkpoints in neurons, acting as either rheostats or sensors responsible for integrating multiple pro-apoptotic and survival cues. A dramatic example of this checkpoint function is observed in developing sympathetic neurons, where a pro-survival and truncated form of p73 antagonizes the apoptotic functions of p53 and p63. Thus the levels and activities of the different p53 family members may ultimately determine whether neurons either live or die during nervous system development and disease.     

.HECT类泛素连接酶对p53家族的调控作用

p53家族成员在细胞生长、组织发育及肿瘤形成等方面都具有十分重要的生物学功能,其自身受到严格调控,泛素化修饰就是其中非常重要的方式之一,作为泛素化过程中决定底物特异性的泛素连接酶E3作用则更加突出.泛素连接酶E3可以分为两类：RING（really interesting new gene）类和HECT（homologous to E6AP C-terminus）类E3近年来,HECT类E3对p53家族的调控效应不断得到揭示.本文综述了HECT类E3在调控p53家族转录活性、稳定 性方面的重要作用、分子机制以及其作用对生物体肿瘤形成和生长发育等产生的影响,为进 一步完善p53家族调控网络,揭示HECT类E3在肿瘤发生发展及防治中的作用提供参考.     

Biochemical and Functional Evidence of p53 Homology Is Inconsistent with Molecular Phylogenetics for Distant Sequences

The tumor suppressor p53 is mutated in ～50% of all human cancer cases worldwide. It is commonly assumed that the phylogenetic history of this important tumor suppressor has been thoroughly studied; however, few detailed studies of the entire extended p53 protein family have been reported, and none comprehensively and simultaneously consider functional, molecular, and phylogenetic data. Herein we examine a diverse collection of reported p53-like protein sequences, including representatives from the arthropods, nematodes, and protists, with the goal of answering several important questions. First, what evidence supports these highly divergent proteins being true homologues to the p53 family? Second, is the inferred overall family phylogeny concordant with known structures and functions? Third, does the extended p53 family possess recognizable conserved sites outside of the within-chordate, highly-conserved DNA-binding domain? Our study shows that the biochemical and functional evidence of p53 homology for nematodes, arthropods, and protists is inconsistent with their implied phylogenetic relationship within the overall family. Although these divergent sequences are always reported as functionally similar to human p53, our results confirm and extend the hypothesis that p63 is a far more appropriate protein for comparison. Within these divergent sequences, we find minimal conservation within the DNA-binding domain, and no conservation elsewhere. Taken together, our findings suggest that these sequences are not bona fide homologues of the extended p53 family and provide baseline criteria for the future identification and characterization of distant p53-family homologues.     

Role of the newer p53 family proteins in malignancy

The most recently identified members of the p53 family, p63 and p73, share certain structural and functional similarities with p53. Both p63 and p73 can bind to canonical p53-DNA-binding sites, transactivate the promoters of known p53 target genes and induce apoptosis. Despite these similarities there are many important differences. In contrast to p53, p63 and p73 give rise to multiple distinct protein isoforms that have different functional properties. Upstream signaling pathways involved in the activation of p63 and p73 differ from those involved in p53 activation. Only a subset of the DNA damaging agents that induce p53 can induce p73. Cellular and viral oncoproteins can discriminate between p53 and the newer family members. In addition, the levels of p63 and p73 are affected by certain states of cellular differentiation. Finally, it is becoming clear that the newest members of the p53 family are not classical tumor suppressor genes. In contrast to the high prevalence of p53 mutations in human cancers, p63 and p73 mutations are rare. Indeed, levels of p73 increase during malignant progression. In addition, unlike p53-/- mice, mice lacking p63 and p73 do not develop tumors, but instead have significant developmental abnormalities. Mutations in p63 have also been detected in humans with the ectodermal dysplastic syndrome EEC. Further studies are required to determine whether qualitative or quantitative differences in the expression of p63 and p73 isoforms are important in the development of human cancers.     

Depletion of the novel p53-target gene carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1C delays tumor growth in the neurofibromatosis type I tumor model

Despite the prominent pro-apoptotic role of p53, this protein has also been shown to promote cell survival in response to metabolic stress. However, the specific mechanism by which p53 protects cells from metabolic stress-induced death is unknown. Earlier we reported that carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1C (CPT1C), a brain-specific member of a family of mitochondria-associated enzymes that have a central role in fatty acid metabolism promotes cell survival and tumor growth. Unlike other members of the CPT family, the subcellular localization of CPT1C and its cellular function remains elusive. Here, we report that CPT1C is a novel p53-target gene with a bona fide p53-responsive element within the first intron. CPT1C is upregulated in vitro and in vivo in a p53-dependent manner. Interestingly, expression of CPT1C is induced by metabolic stress factors such as hypoxia and glucose deprivation in a p53 and AMP activated kinase-dependent manner. Furthermore, in a murine tumor model, depletion of Cpt1c leads to delayed tumor development and a striking increase in survival. Taken together, our results indicate that p53 protects cells from metabolic stress via induction of CPT1C and that CPT1C may have a crucial role in carcinogenesis. CPT1C may therefore represent an exciting new therapeutic target for the treatment of hypoxic and otherwise treatment-resistant tumors.     

The specific role of pRb in p16INK4A-mediated arrest of normal and malignant human breast cells

RB family proteins pRb, p107 and p130 have similar structures and overlapping functions, enabling cell cycle arrest and cellular senescence. pRb, but not p107 or p130, is frequently mutated in human malignancies. In human fibroblasts acutely exposed to oncogenic ras, pRb has a specific role in suppressing DNA replication, and p107 or p130 cannot compensate for the loss of this function; however, a second p53/p21-dependent checkpoint prevents escape from growth arrest. This model of oncogene-induced senescence requires the additional loss of p53/p21 to explain selection for preferential loss of pRb function in human malignancies. We asked whether similar rules apply to the role of pRb in growth arrest of human epithelial cells, the source of most cancers. In two malignant human breast cancer cell lines, we found that individual RB family proteins were sufficient for the establishment of p16-initiated senescence, and that growth arrest in G₁ was not dependent on the presence of functional pRb or p53. However, senescence induction by endogenous p16 was delayed in primary normal human mammary epithelial cells with reduced pRb but not with reduced p107 or p130. Thus, under these circumstances, despite the presence of functional p53, p107 and p130 were unable to completely compensate for pRb in mediating senescence induction. We propose that early inactivation of pRb in pre-malignant breast cells can, by itself, extend proliferative lifespan, allowing acquisition of additional changes necessary for malignant transformation.     

p63基因的结构与功能

p63基因是肿瘤抑制基因p53家族成员之一,与p53基因表现出高度同源性.较之p53基因,p63基因更为复杂.p63的两个不同启动子和多种内含子剪接方式,导致p63基因编码产生多种亚型P63蛋白.这些P63亚型蛋白,在不同的组织不同的发育阶段发挥不同的生物学功能.本文就p63基因结构、p63在细胞周期和凋亡中的作用,以及在表皮发育中的功能等方面的研究进展作一概述.     

p53家族及其通路相关蛋白调节母性生殖的新功能

p53是一种重要的抗癌基因,同时它也是机体感受环境压力并进行相应调节的关键基因之一。最近的研究发现东亚人群p53 Arg72Pro受到冬季温度自然选择,表明p53可能在生殖中发挥作用。同时,p53及其通路中的癌基因鼠双微体2(Murinedoubleminute2,Mdm2)、MdmX和Hausp(Herpesvirus-associated ubiquitin-specific protease)基因的单核苷酸多态性(Single nucleotide polymorphisms,SNP)与女性生殖疾病易感性相关。P53蛋白通过其DNA结合区(DNA-binding domain,DBD)调控白血病抑制因子(Leukaemiainhibitory factor,LIF)表达,从而影响胚胎植入过程,实现其在母性生殖中的作用。p53通路中Mdm2、MdmX和Hausp可以调控P53蛋白的表达水平和活性,同时还可以在胚胎植入时准确的调控p53的表达水平,促进胚胎植入;P53家族成员P63、P73具有P53相似的DBD区,但P63和P73是通过别的途径影响到母性生殖;在卵母细胞受到射线或者化学损伤后,P63能促进其凋亡,减少畸型的产生;P73能影响纺锤体复合物的组装,而纺锤体复合物缺失将导致胚泡质量低下,微管结合的动粒缺失和细胞非整倍性的增加。文章主要综述了p53家族、p53通路中的相关蛋白对母性生殖的影响,为提高IVF-ET成功指出了新方法,同时也为不明原因的不孕患者提供了新的诊断思路,将有助于制定合理的个性化治疗不孕方案。     

GLS2 is transcriptionally regulated by p73 and contributes to neuronal differentiation

The amino acid Glutamine is converted into Glutamate by a deamidation reaction catalyzed by the enzyme Glutaminase (GLS). Two isoforms of this enzyme have been described, and the GLS2 isoform is regulated by the tumor suppressor gene p53. Here, we show that the p53 family member TAp73 also drives the expression of GLS2. Specifically, we demonstrate that TAp73 regulates GLS2 during retinoic acid-induced terminal neuronal differentiation of neuroblastoma cells, and overexpression or inhibition of GLS2 modulates neuronal differentiation and intracellular levels of ATP. Moreover, inhibition of GLS activity, by removing Glutamine from the growth medium, impairs in vitro differentiation of cortical neurons. Finally, expression of GLS2 increases during mouse cerebellar development. Although, p73 is dispensable for the in vivo expression of GLS2, TAp73 loss affects GABA and Glutamate levels in cortical neurons. Together, these findings suggest a role for GLS2 acting, at least in part, downstream of p73 in neuronal differentiation and highlight a possible role of p73 in regulating neurotransmitter synthesis.     

靶向突变p53蛋白的抗肿瘤药物

p53蛋白是人体内十分重要的肿瘤抑制因子,通过调节细胞周期阻滞、诱导细胞凋亡等作用发挥肿瘤抑制功能。突变后的p53蛋白不仅具有显性负性效应（dominant negative effect,DN）抑制野生型p53蛋白功能,而且还通过功能获得性效应（gain of function,GOF）调节细胞代谢、侵袭、迁移等方式促进肿瘤的发生。p53蛋白在超过50%的肿瘤组织中发生突变,是肿瘤细胞区别于正常细胞的一个特异性药物靶点。因此,针对突变p53蛋白开发新型抗癌药物一直是研究的热点。长期以来,由于突变p53蛋白表面较为光滑,缺乏药物结合口袋,使其被认为是一个不可成药的靶点。随着高通量筛选技术的发展以及对突变p53蛋白结构的深入了解,许多靶向突变p53蛋白的小分子化合物被报道并在体外展现出较好的抗肿瘤活性,多款基于突变p53蛋白研发的化合物已经进入临床试验阶段。本文就靶向p53蛋白治疗肿瘤的直接和间接策略进行综述,重点针对突变p53蛋白重激活剂与降解突变p53蛋白的小分子化合物作用机制进行梳理,以期为后续开发靶向突变p53蛋白药物的创新提供帮助。