Employing participatory surveys to monitor the illegal killing of elephants across diverse land uses in Laikipia–Samburu,Kenya

Levels and trends of illegal killing of elephants are measured by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme in sites across Africa and Asia. In the mostly unprotected Laikipia–Samburu MIKE site in northern Kenya, elephant mortality data were collected using both standard law enforcement monitoring procedures, relying on patrolling, and participatory methods involving local communities. Qualitatively, traditional patrolling techniques were more successful in protected areas whereas participatory approaches provided more information outside protected areas, where elephant were most at risk from ivory poachers. A minimum of 35% of the 389 verified carcasses during 2001–2003 were illegally killed. In this baseline study, land uses ranked from highest to lowest by the proportion of illegally killed elephants (PIKE) were community conservation areas, government trust lands, forest reserves, private ranches, settlement areas and national reserves. PIKE trends derived from traditional and participatory data sources were similar across years and indicate elephants were at greater risk in regions outside government or privately patrolled areas. We suggest that PIKE is a useful index for comparing levels and trends in illegal killing of elephants, and that carcass ratios and presence/absence of tusks are useful proxy indicators of mortality and its causes.     

Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin

Debate over repealing the ivory trade ban dominates conferences of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Resolving this controversy requires accurate estimates of elephant population trends and rates of illegal killing. Most African savannah elephant populations are well known; however, the status of forest elephants, perhaps a distinct species, in the vast Congo Basin is unclear. We assessed population status and incidence of poaching from line-transect and reconnaissance surveys conducted on foot in sites throughout the Congo Basin. Results indicate that the abundance and range of forest elephants are threatened from poaching that is most intense close to roads. The probability of elephant presence increased with distance to roads, whereas that of human signs declined. At all distances from roads, the probability of elephant occurrence was always higher inside, compared to outside, protected areas, whereas that of humans was always lower. Inside protected areas, forest elephant density was correlated with the size of remote forest core, but not with size of protected area. Forest elephants must be prioritised in elephant management planning at the continental scale.     

Predictors of elephant poaching in a wildlife crime hotspot: The Ruvuma landscape of southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique

Understanding the spatial distribution of elephant carcasses in relation to ecological characteristics and human activities is critical to developing targeted management strategies for reducing poaching. We employ a spatial modelling approach to quantify the relative contribution of multiple climatic, ecological, human and protected area management predictors of the number of elephant carcasses in a recognized poaching hotspot: the Ruvuma landscape of northern Mozambique and southern Tanzania. This includes the Niassa Reserve in the south and the Selous Game Reserve in the north. In Mozambique, the number of elephant carcasses is positively associated with State-managed protected areas such as Niassa Reserve, but particularly with environmental variables including low rainfall and high temperatures. In Tanzania, elephant carcasses are positively associated with community-managed sites. A strong focus on effective management of protected areas in the Ruvuma landscape is crucial to reducing the killing of elephants.     

A population survey of forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in northern Congo

From February to April of 1989 transects were run in four forested areas of northern Congo (Brazzaville) to census elephant populations using dung counts. A total of 401.0 km of line transects was completed during the survey. An overall extrapolated density of 0.7 elephants/km² was obtained with a variation from 0.3 to 0.9 elephants/km². This study shows for the first time that elephants occur in high densities in a number of sites in northern Congo. When elephant dung density is plotted against distance from the nearest village for each transect a significant positive linear correlation results. Based on this correlation we hypothesize that the population of elephants in much of northern Congo is high. Local reports and our own observations indicate that elephant poaching is heavy in northern Congo and that the CITES ban on trade in African elephant ivory has had a limited effect on the level of poaching.     

Using Poaching Levels and Elephant Distribution to Assess the Conservation Efficacy of Private,Communal and Government Land in Northern Kenya

Efforts to curb elephant poaching have focused on reducing demand, confiscating ivory and boosting security patrols in elephant range. Where land is under multiple uses and ownership, determining the local poaching dynamics is important for identifying successful conservation models. Using 2,403 verified elephant, Loxodonta africana, mortality records collected from 2002 to 2012 and the results of aerial total counts of elephants conducted in 2002, 2008 and 2012 for the Laikipia-Samburu ecosystem of northern Kenya, we sought to determine the influence of land ownership and use on diurnal elephant distribution and on poaching levels. We show that the annual proportions of illegally killed (i.e., poached) elephants increased over the 11 years of the study, peaking at 70% of all recorded deaths in 2012. The type of land use was more strongly related to levels of poaching than was the type of ownership. Private ranches, comprising only 13% of land area, hosted almost half of the elephant population and had significantly lower levels of poaching than other land use types except for the officially designated national reserves (covering only 1.6% of elephant range in the ecosystem). Communal grazing lands hosted significantly fewer elephants than expected, but community areas set aside for wildlife demonstrated significantly higher numbers of elephants and lower illegal killing levels relative to non-designated community lands. While private lands had lower illegal killing levels than community conservancies, the success of the latter relative to other community-held lands shows the importance of this model of land use for conservation. This work highlights the relationship between illegal killing and various land ownership and use models, which can help focus anti-poaching activities.     

Demographic status of elephants in the Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya

Individual based demographic records of the elephants utilizing Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves were collected from 1998 through 2003 and indicate that this elephant population was increasing at an average rate of 4.6% per year. Although the majority of carcasses were not found, known sources of mortality include disease, injury, and predation by lions and humans. Poaching did occur during the study period, however the population is increasing and thus our findings indicate ivory poaching has limited impact on the demographic status of these elephants. This population is part of the Samburu/Laikipia MIKE Site and thus its status is relevant to CITES ligislation.     

Environmental factors affecting the distribution of African elephants in the Kasigau wildlife corridor,SE Kenya

The African elephant, Loxodonta africana, is under threat from habitat loss, poaching and human–elephant conflict. To mitigate for impact of habitat loss and reduce conflict, connectivity between elephant habitats can be improved through the protection of corridor areas. This study looks at elephant distribution and movement patterns within the Kasigau Wildlife Corridor (KWC) within the Tsavo Conservation Area in South‐east Kenya. Elephant presence data were obtained from observations by rangers during routine patrols across KWC, and were analysed in MaxEnt. The environmental factors predicting elephant distribution and density were tested, as well as the relationship between elephant maximum entropy and the presence and abundance of other wildlife. Seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation, plus presence of waterholes were found to play significant roles in elephant distribution across KWC. Higher elephant densities were not found to correlate with lower densities of other wildlife species; indeed, during the dry seasons, elephant presence was associated with greater wild herbivore densities. Besides illustrating the importance of the KWC for elephant conservation in the Tsavo ecosystem, both as a key corridor and habitat, this study also hopes to highlight the untapped utility of routine ranger patrol data, and encourage the use of such presence‐only data for deducing important knowledge for conservation of biodiversity.     

Hotspot elephant‐poaching areas in the Eastern Selous Game Reserve,Tanzania

Elephant poaching is a significant problem in many parts of Africa, including Tanzania. This study identifies areas within the Eastern Selous Game Reserve (ESGR) that are at a higher risk of elephant poaching for the illegal ivory trade. We obtained data on the distribution of poached elephants and the seasons of poaching from 2008 to 2013 from the elephant mortality database of the Selous Game Reserve in the eastern and north‐eastern sectors. The incidences of poaching were higher during the wet season. The hot spots of elephant poaching were observed on the edges of the ESGR. This finding was attributed to the involvement of local people adjacent to the ESGR in poaching activities due to a lack of economic opportunities. This study will serve as a tool to guide and inform reserve managers involved in wildlife conservation in Tanzania. Recommended solutions to address the problem of elephant poaching are improved economic opportunities for local people, enhanced conservation education and research and improved governance and law enforcement.     

Optimising investments from elephant tourist revenues in the Maputo Elephant Reserve, Mozambique

Private enterprises are active in conservation initiatives in Africa. Some of these enterprises have long-term licences for the development of conservation areas. The motivation of these organisations to participate in conservation is ultimately determined by the economic output of their activities. An electric fence is being constructed in the Maputo Elephant Reserve, Mozambique. A costs-benefit analysis was carried out, in order to assist in the optimisation of the management activities of the elephant population, based on elephant population size, fence costs, crop raid costs, elephant poaching, and benefits derived from tourism (game-viewing and hunting). Tourist numbers increased with increasing elephant density through a concave utility function. Optimal harvest/hunting strategies were calculated from optimal control theory, using dynamic optimisation (Pontryagin's Maximum Principle). Poaching and raid costs could be compared to fence construction costs at different elephant population sizes. Costs generated through elephant poaching and elephant crop raid costs were higher than fence construction costs at a population size >100. Elephant hunting was a less favourable activity, economically and ecologically, than elephant viewing, due to the large game-viewing profits per elephant. Only if the licence fee increases from US$6500 to 28,500 would hunting become attractive, although ecological and economical constraints would probably prevent the development of hunting activities in the area. The assumed resource price of elephant (US$5000) was lower than the marginal value derived from tourism, indicating that elephants should be bought until the maximum stocking rate is reached.     

Landscape-scale habitat response of African elephants shows strong selection for foraging opportunities in a human dominated ecosystem

Balancing trade-offs between foraging and risk factors is a fundamental behavior that structures the spatial distribution of species. For African elephants Loxodonta africana, human pressures from poaching and conflict are primary drivers of species decline, but little is known about how elephants structure their spatial behavior in the face of human occupancy and predation. We seek to understand how elephants balance trade-offs between resource access, human presence and human predatory risk factors (poaching and conflict killing) in an unfenced, dynamic ecosystem where elephants persist primarily outside protected areas in community rangelands. We used tracking data from 101 elephants collected between 2001 and 2016. We investigated elephant behavior in response to landcover, topography, productivity, water, human features and human predation risk using third-order resource selection functions. We extended this analysis by employing a mixed-effects multinomial regression to identify temporal shifts in habitat use, and evaluated temporal shifts in movement patterns by estimating mean squared displacement across different productivity periods. Across periods, elephants displayed strong selection for productive areas and areas near water. Temporal shifts in habitat use showed that, during the dry period, elephants were clustered around permanent water sources where humans also congregated. At the onset of the wet period, a shift occurred where elephants moved away from permanent water and from permanent settlements towards seasonal water sources and seasonal settlements. Our findings indicate that foraging and water access are important limiting factors affecting elephants that potentially restrain their spatial responses to humans at the scale of our analysis. Given that pastoralists and elephants rely on the same resources, increasing human and livestock populations enhance pressure on shared resources and space in Africa's drylands. The long-term conservation of elephants will require approaches that reduce poaching as well as landscape level planning to prevent negative impacts from increasing competition for preferred resources.     

Effects of poaching on bull mating success in a free ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) population in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania

Poaching and habitat encroachment for human settlement are the two major factors that caused contraction of elephant populations in Africa. While the effects of poaching on many aspects of elephant social systems have been studied, the impacts on mating patterns are not yet understood and such information is still lacking in most African countries. In this study, we used elephant specific-microsatellite DNA to generate genotypes from 86 elephant samples (84 fresh faeces and two tissue samples) from Tarangire National Park (TNP), Tanzania to assess the mating success of individual males. We also tested whether the oldest bulls are more likely to sire most of the offspring in a severely poached population. Genetic paternity analysis was compared to behavioural observations of matings collected over a 3-year period (1998–2001) to determine the success of bull mating strategy. The genotypes of 26 infants, their known mothers and 10 out of 43 potential breeding bulls in TNP were used to assign 31% of the offspring at 80% confidence level to their potential fathers with simulation assuming that 23% (10/43) of the breeding males were sampled. Mating success of individual bull based on both behavioural and genetic data showed that the oldest remaining bulls performed most of the matings and fathered the majority of infants. We speculate that the lifetime fitness of bulls that have survived poaching may be elevated because their period of dominance increases.     

Elephant behaviour and conservation: social relationships, the effects of poaching, and genetic tools for management

Genetic tools are increasingly valuable for understanding the behaviour, evolution, and conservation of social species. In African elephants, for instance, genetic data provide basic information on the population genetic causes and consequences of social behaviour, and how human activities alter elephants' social and genetic structures. As such, African elephants provide a useful case study to understand the relationships between social behaviour and population genetic structure in a conservation framework. Here, we review three areas where genetic methods have made important contributions to elephant behavioural ecology and conservation: (1) understanding kin-based relationships in females and the effects of poaching on the adaptive value of elephant relationships, (2) understanding patterns of paternity in elephants and how poaching can alter these patterns, and (3) conservation genetic tools to census elusive populations, track ivory, and understand the behavioural ecology of crop-raiding. By comparing studies from populations that have experienced a range of poaching intensities, we find that human activities have a large effect on elephant behaviour and genetic structure. Poaching disrupts kin-based association patterns, decreases the quality of elephant social relationships, and increases male reproductive skew, with important consequences for population health and the maintenance of genetic diversity. In addition, we find that genetic tools to census populations or gather forensic information are almost always more accurate than non-genetic alternatives. These results contribute to a growing understanding of poaching on animal behaviour, and how genetic tools can be used to understand and conserve social species.     

Fat Residue and Use-Wear Found on Acheulian Biface and Scraper Associated with Butchered Elephant Remains at the Site of Revadim,Israel

The archaeological record indicates that elephants must have played a significant role in early human diet and culture during Palaeolithic times in the Old World. However, the nature of interactions between early humans and elephants is still under discussion. Elephant remains are found in Palaeolithic sites, both open-air and cave sites, in Europe, Asia, the Levant, and Africa. In some cases elephant and mammoth remains indicate evidence for butchering and marrow extraction performed by humans. Revadim Quarry (Israel) is a Late Acheulian site where elephant remains were found in association with characteristic Lower Palaeolithic flint tools. In this paper we present results regarding the use of Palaeolithic tools in processing animal carcasses and rare identification of fat residue preserved on Lower Palaeolithic tools. Our results shed new light on the use of Palaeolithic stone tools and provide, for the first time, direct evidence (residue) of animal exploitation through the use of an Acheulian biface and a scraper. The association of an elephant rib bearing cut marks with these tools may reinforce the view suggesting the use of Palaeolithic stone tools in the consumption of large game.     

East African coastal forest under pressure

The Arabuko Sokoke dryland coastal forest along the East African coastline provides a unique habitat for many endangered endemic animal and plant species. High demographic pressure with subsequent land-splitting, soil depletion in combination with erratic rainfalls and the collapse of the tourism industry are negatively affecting food security and human livelihood quality in this region. Food crops were originally produced by subsistence farming, but have now to be purchased at local- and super-markets, constituting a major financial burden for the local people. In consequence, overexploitation of natural resources from Arabuko Sokoke forest (illegal logging, charcoal burning, poaching of wild animals) increased during the past years. In this commentary we document ecosystem heterogeneity leading to high species richness. We discuss direct and indirect drivers of habitat degradation of the Arabuko Sokoke forest, and critically reflect current and future solutions. Key drivers of habitat destruction and biodiversity loss are (i) illegal timber logging and removal of woody biomass, (ii) poaching of bush-meat, (iii) exceeding of the carrying capacity by the local elephant population, restricted to Arabuko Sokoke by an electric fence, and (iv) weak governance structures and institutional confusion exacerbating illegal exploitation of natural resources. Potential solutions might be: Provisioning of additional income sources; reforestation of the surrounding areas in the framework of REDD+ activities to create a buffer around the remaining primary forest; improving governance structures that formulates clear guidelines on future usage and protection of natural resources within the Arabuko Sokoke forest; and family planning to counteract human demographic pressure and the exploitation of natural resources.     

Human–elephant coexistence challenges in Myanmar: An analysis of fatal elephant attacks on humans and elephant mortality

Understanding the underlying causes behind human–elephant conflict (HEC)-driven mortality of humans and elephants will help improve both parties’ wellbeing. The objective of this study was to examine the temporal and spatial mortality patterns of humans and elephants and the influence of local attitudes, conflict factors and habitat factors on elephant poaching. We used the Myanmar Forest Department data from 2001 to 2020 for humans and 2011 to 2020 for elephants together with explanatory data on human attitudes, habitat, and conflict factors. Approximately seven persons were killed annually in elephant attacks, with a bias towards men. The annual mortality of elephants during the study period was on average 16 individuals, and most elephants were killed by humans. There was a significant relationship between the number of killed humans and human-killed elephants around HEC villages. Villages with more property damage exhibited a higher rate of human mortality, which also correlated with negative feelings of local people towards elephants. Elephant poaching was higher in villages with less suitable habitat available for elephant use. Human encroachment is an important cause of HEC, leading to human loss and forming the main threat to the survival of wild elephants. We suggest local involvement to ensure good governance in conflict resolution and mitigation strategies and to strengthen law enforcement.     

Demography of a population with a long history of poaching and the utility of the individual identification technique as a tool for monitoring intermittently studied elephant populations

In many elephant populations in Africa, adverse effects of poaching including altered age and sex structure and long calving intervals continue to negatively impact the rate of recovery. The study reported here characterized the demographic status of the elephant population in Meru National Park, Kenya, so as to determine the size, age and sex structure, and calving interval of the population and to compare its demographic parameters against those from the relatively stable elephant population at Amboseli. Additionally, a demographic study conducted 7 years earlier enabled us to determine the demographic performance of the population and to explicitly test the utility of the individual identification technique in monitoring intermittently studied populations. We found 392 elephants in the park. The proportion of older individuals was lower, and the calving interval was longer than estimates from Amboseli. We recognized 16% of elephants indexed in the previous study. Our results suggest that the individual identification technique may be useful in monitoring demographic changes including poaching in intermittently studied elephant populations. Overall, our results suggest that although the Meru elephant population showed signs of recovery, poaching continues to imperil its recovery.     

Forest elephant paths and movements at the Odzala National Park, Congo: the role of clearings and Marantaceae forests

The role of forest clearings and Marantaceae forest on elephant movement at the Odzala National Park was studied by describing and mapping elephant paths. Three types of paths were distinguished based on their direction, length, width, elephant activity and the types of forests they cross. They were called boulevards, foraging paths, and clearing alleys. All paths explored were heavily used. Boulevards are used for travelling over long distances (up to 34 km) and for linking up rapidly favourite sites such as clearings. Foraging paths mainly run through the medium-density Marantaceae forests which provide elephants with both herbaceous foods and tree fruit. Clearing alleys form a dense network of tracks around clearings. This network could be a result of an anti-predatory monitoring behaviour of elephants before entering the clearings where they have long experienced heavy poaching. The heavy trampling which results from the elephant activity could contribute to the maintenance of clearings by preventing germination and seedling survival of the numerous seeds dispersed in their dung.     

Poaching lowers elephant path tortuosity: implications for conservation

Poaching is the most immediate threat to African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Several continental-wide surges in poaching have occurred since the latter half of the twentieth century, and the latest surge occurred from 2007 to 2012. The behavioral responses of elephants to poaching risk has not been studied widely because of a lack of high-resolution movement data collected simultaneously with verified causes of mortality. We managed to collate 2 such datasets from 2004 to 2013. We studied the spatial-temporal changes in movement behavior of 11 elephants in their core areas. Past studies have focused on elephant movement along corridors. We tested for the effect of poaching risk on their path straightness (i.e., tortuosity) while controlling for other environmental and human activities in the landscape using a set of generalized linear mixed models. To test for temporal variation of tortuosity, we used a time-series linear model. Elephants turned less frequently while they were in poaching locations and at times with a high level of poaching activity, even though their speed did not change. The variation of tortuosity is a good indicator of differences in poaching risk as perceived by the elephants, which could complement patrol-based anti-poaching efforts by wildlife managers, especially in remote, inaccessible landscapes. © 2019 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Wildlife Society     

The Effects of One-Off Ivory Sales on Elephant Mortality

ABSTRACT We revisited the debate about whether the 1999 one-off sale of ivory promoted elephant (Loxodonta africana) poaching in Africa. Complementing earlier work based on ivory seizure data, we considered data on elephant mortality in Zimbabwe and Kenya. Our findings present a mixed picture. At the local level there was some evidence that the one-off sale resulted in extra elephant killing, but this effect was relatively small (and probably short-lived). Although the data were too scanty to draw strong conclusions, decision-making about elephant management and the ivory trade has to continue and will necessarily be based on imperfect information for a long time to come. Our findings suggest that further experimenting with one-off sales may be beneficial from a conservation and development perspective.     

Evaluating determinants of wire-snare poaching risk in the Boland Mountain Complex of South Africa

Wire-snare poaching for bushmeat is increasingly recognised as a global threat to biodiversity and is directly linked to the reduction or extirpation of targeted species, threatened species bycatch and the loss of functional ecosystem processes. However, studies evaluating the extent and underlying dynamics of bushmeat poaching in southern Africa remain limited. Despite growing evidence of wire-snaring incidence in the Boland Mountain Complex of South Africa, formal research has been restricted to unverified reporting. Through systematic anti-poaching patrols on private agricultural properties bordering protected areas, this study characterised snaring, compared interview- and patrol-reported incidence to quantify the influence of socioeconomic and biophysical determinants of bushmeat poaching, and spatially predicted poaching risk throughout the region. In total, 671 snares were located during 96 (46%) bi-annual patrols (June 2019 to June 2020), covering a total distance of 1,332 km across 112 private properties. Of these snares, 537 (80%) were anchored and active. Furthermore, snares were primarily positioned along game trails (47%) and fence lines (39%) where they were predominantly anchored to trees (40%) or fence posts (39%). Snares were mainly made of wire (70%) or nylon (19%) and suspended at 0–60 cm (97%). Snaring incidence did not differ significantly (P = 0.186) between interviews (n = 307) and patrols (n = 180), reporting on average 2.32 ± 0.23 (SE) snares on the property in the month preceding each interview and 3.34 ± 0.55 snares removed on interviewed properties (n = 92). Interview-reported snaring positively correlated with the number of resident families per property and the use of lethal control measures but was negatively correlated with owners endorsing punitive measures and where orchards were the primary agricultural output. In contrast, patrol-reported snaring frequency increased with the number of resident families per property, farmer residency and a primary agricultural output of orchards. High risk areas for snaring were predicted between 2.2 and 5.8 km from the nearest public street, between 1.5 and 2.2 km from the nearest settlement, at elevations of 300–500 m, between 1.8 and 2.5 km from the nearest protected area and 0.5–3.2 km from the nearest river, thus identifying new poaching hotspots across the region. This study features a novel interdisciplinary approach to understanding the complex nature of bushmeat poaching and adds applied conservation value by optimising current monitoring and law enforcement efforts.