Bat assemblages on Neotropical land-bridge islands: nested subsets and null model analyses of species co-occurrence patterns

A fundamental goal of ecology is to understand whether ecological communities are structured according to general assembly rules or are essentially dictated by random processes. In the context of fragmentation, understanding assembly patterns and their mechanistic basis also has important implications for conservation. Using distribution data of 20 bat species collected on 11 islands in Gatún Lake, Panama, we tested for non‐randomness in presence–absence matrices with respect to nestedness and negative species co‐occurrence. We examined the causal basis for the observed patterns and conducted separate analyses for the entire assemblage and for various species submatrices reflecting differences in species’ trophic position and mobility. Furthermore, we explored the influence of weighting factors (area, isolation, abundance) on co‐occurrence analyses. Unweighted analyses revealed a significant negative co‐occurrence pattern for the entire assemblage and for phytophagous bats alone. Weighting analyses by isolation retained a pattern of species segregation for the whole assemblage but nullified the non‐random structure for phytophagous bats and suggested negative associations for animalivores and species with low mobility. Area‐ and abundance‐weighted analyses always indicated random structuring. Bat distributions followed a nested subset structure across islands, regardless of whether all species or different submatrices were analysed. Nestedness was in all cases unrelated to island area but weakly correlated with island isolation for incidence matrices of all species, phytophagous bats, and mobile species. Overall, evidence for negative interspecific interactions indicative of competitive effects was weak, corroborating previous studies based on ecomorphological analyses. Our findings indicate that bat assemblages on our study islands are most strongly shaped by isolation effects and species’ differential movement and colonization ability. From a conservation viewpoint this suggests that even in systems with high fragment–matrix contrast, a purely area‐based approach may be inadequate, and structural and functional connectivity among patches are important to consider in reserve planning.     

Direct and indirect effects in microcosm communities of protists

Increased complexity in biological communities can increase the variety of interactions among species, but the relative strengths and long-term consequences of various direct and indirect interactions require further investigation. I studied interactions among four species of protists by monitoring their population dynamics when they were cultured either together or in seven different subset communities. Two protists were bacterivores (Chilomonas and Tetrahymena) and two were predators (Actinosphaerium and Euplotes). Actinosphaerium was omnivorous, and could eat both predatory Euplotes and bacterivores. Three indirect effects occurred among the four species of protists, including indirect facilitation of one predator by the other, apparent competition between bacterivores, and indirect facilitation of one bacterivore by the omnivorous predator. Community structure and invasibility depended on both direct and indirect effects; thus both can be mechanisms for assembly rules.     

The myth of constant predator: prey ratios

Apparent constancy in the ratio of predator species to prey species has been offered as evidence that ecological communities are structured by interspecific interactions. If significantly different from random expectation, this effect would be one of the few sound pieces of evidence for community structure. The evidence was re-evaluated by using the data from previous studies to form species pools, and forming simulated communities by drawing species at random from these pools (with replacement). Using a correlation coefficient (number of predator species versus number of prey species), and also the statistic used by the original workers (where different), the observed predator:prey correlation was compared to that for the random communities. In five studies, the observed predator:prey ratio was not significantly different from random expectation. In the only two studies where there was significant departure from the null model, it was with more variation in the ratio than expected on a random basis. It is concluded that there is as yet no evidence for near-constant predator:prey ratios.     

Influence of species and abiotic factors on extreme tree ring modulation:

 The influence of biotic (tree species) and abiotic factors (regional climate, altitude and stand aspect) on extreme tree-ring widths is dendroecologically investigated. Negative pointer years are observed when abrupt radial growth reductions (exceeding 40%) occurred synchronously in a given tree population. Pointer year intensity is expected to follow several theoretical models when trees are sampled along ecological gradients in various site conditions. Hypotheses are made about expected patterns of pointer year spatial distribution. They are compared with observed results obtained with Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] and silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) sampled in two French Alpine valleys (Tarentaise and Maurienne) with different regional climates, on two aspects and three altitude levels. Results reveal that extreme years follow expected patterns well. Thus, clear site modulations are observed in 1956 and 1986 (only trees located in Maurienne reacted). Moreover, species differences are observed, with typical cases of single species sensitivity (for spruce, occurring in 1962 and 1992). Abiotic factors such as altitude and aspect also involve clear pointer year patterns, such as narrow rings in 1976 due to summer drought that occurred especially at lower altitudes. However, some observed extreme years sometimes appear to be a combination of two (or three) of these one-factor theoretical models (e.g. 1921 with both lower altitude level and only observed in Tarentaise; 1948 involving both higher altitude and northern slopes). These results demonstrate the consistency of various tree-ring and climate relationships along ecological gradients.     

Asymmetric coexistence: bidirectional abiotic and biotic effects between goose barnacles and mussels

1. Species coexistence depends on the net effect of interacting species, representing the sum of multiple interaction components that may act simultaneously and vary independently depending on ambient environmental conditions. Consequently, for a comprehensive understanding of the compound nature of species interactions and coexistence, a mechanistic approach that allows a separate evaluation of each interaction component is required. 2. Two sessile filter-feeders, the goose barnacle Capitulum mitella and the mussel Septifer virgatus, coexist on moderately wave-exposed rocky shores in south-western Japan. In the upper intertidal, Capitulum positively influenced Septifer survivorship and growth through amelioration of thermal stress and of physical disturbance. On the other hand, these species are potential competitors as they have similar body sizes and modes of resource utilization. These opposite processes, facilitation and competition, are based on abiotic characteristics and biotic functions of the two species, respectively. 3. In order to quantify the bidirectional abiotic, biotic and net effects, a series of experimental manipulations was conducted involving the use of living neighbours with both abiotic and biotic effects, and artificial mimics to simulate abiotic effects without biotic effects. 4. Capitulum had strong positive abiotic effects on the mussel survivorship in most experimental periods, while the biotic effect was negligible or weakly negative, suggesting that the net effect of Capitulum on mussel survival was largely attributable to the abiotic effect. In contrast, a significantly negative biotic effect on the mussel growth rate was always present, though this was cancelled out by the larger, positive abiotic effect. In the case of Septifer, its abiotic and biotic effects on the survivorship of goose barnacles were negligible, while those on the growth rate showed temporal variation. 5. With respect to the relationship between species interaction and environmental conditions, the strength of abiotic facilitative effect of Capitulum on mussel survival increased with increasing abiotic stress, while the strength of biotic effect was negligible or weakly negative. As regards the effects of mussels on goose barnacles, our study indicated no obvious relationship. These results point to the importance of decomposing interaction for an accurate, mechanistic understanding of species relations and coexistence.     

Spatial and temporal variation in fish assemblages of drying stream pools: The role of abiotic and biotic factors

Droughts and summer drying create unusual temporary aquatic habitats in the form of isolated pools in many small streams around the world. To examine spatial and temporal variation in fish community structure of drying stream pools, their relation to abiotic environmental variables, and associations among species, fish were sampled during summer 1995 and 1996 from pools of four streams in the Ozark mountains, Arkansas, USA. Redundancy analysis of physical-chemical variables showed significant differences among stream sites, but no significant difference between years or stream site by year interaction. Stream sites separated consistently along axes one (habitat heterogeneity) and two (temperature/canopy cover) in both years. Redundancy analysis of fish species-size class densities showed a significant stream site by year interaction. Groupings of stream sites based on fish assemblages were not well explained by physical-chemical variables measured at the pool scale, but were related to location within the drainage basin, and these groupings differed between years. There were 27 (15.8%) and 10 (5.8%) significant associations found among fish species-size classes in 1995 and 1996, respectively, and all but two significant associations in 1995 were positive. Pool depth, habitat heterogeneity, pool size and dissolved oxygen/canopy cover were important local abiotic factors depending on response variables examined. In both years, large fish total density, large central stoneroller density (80 mm TL), and small sunfish (<80 mm TL) density were positively related to pool depth. Otherwise, there was no consistent relationship between physical-chemical variables and dependent variables (fish density and species richness) within a year or between years for a given dependent variable. These results support the hypothesis that local abiotic factors are important in structuring fish assemblages in harsh environments, but the importance of those factors varies temporally, and regional influences appear to override local abiotic conditions as factors structuring fish assemblages in drying stream pools. Predation by terrestrial vertebrates may also be an important factor structuring these fish assemblages that has been largely overlooked.     

Interspecific mating in the Piriqueta caroliniana (Turneraceae) complex: effects of pollen load size and composition

Two taxa of Piriqueta (P. caroliniana and P. viridis) form a broad hybrid zone that extends over much of the central Florida peninsula. We used genetic markers to examine the strength of the isolation barriers between these taxa and the patterns of mating at the initial stages of hybridization. Regression models were employed to analyze the effects of pollen load size and the proportions of intra- and interspecific pollen on the frequency of first-generation (F1) hybrid formation. Overall, the postpollination mating barriers between these two taxa were relatively weak. However, there were significant effects of pollen load composition and size on the patterns of hybridization in both taxa with frequency-dependent responses to composition in both taxa. The frequency of F1 hybrid formation was generally lower than expected based on the frequency of each pollen type on the stigma for P. caroliniana recipients. The lower frequencies of F1 seeds in this taxon were apparently due to a greater competitive ability for intraspecific pollen, since hybrid seed formation decreased with increasing pollen load size. Pollen from P. caroliniana donors was also competitively superior on P. viridis recipients, leading to higher than expected frequencies of hybrid seed formation. Pollen from P. caroliniana did suffer higher rates of pollen-tube attrition than intraspecific pollen on P. viridis recipients, so the frequency of hybrid seed formation would be lower when pellen load sizes were small. In general, reproductive isolation mechanisms were stronger in P. caroliniana, suggesting that introgression should occur into P. viridis when these taxa come into close contact. Comparison of these expected patterns of mating to the distribution of hybrid genotypes in Florida provides insights into the relative roles of mating and selection in the evolution of hybrid populations of Piriqueta.     

Cork oak vulnerability to fire: the role of bark harvesting, tree characteristics and abiotic factors

Forest ecosystems where periodical tree bark harvesting is a major economic activity may be particularly vulnerable to disturbances such as fire, since debarking usually reduces tree vigour and protection against external agents. In this paper we asked how cork oak Quercus suber trees respond after wildfires and, in particular, how bark harvesting affects post-fire tree survival and resprouting. We gathered data from 22 wildfires (4585 trees) that occurred in three southern European countries (Portugal, Spain and France), covering a wide range of conditions characteristic of Q. suber ecosystems. Post-fire tree responses (tree mortality, stem mortality and crown resprouting) were examined in relation to management and ecological factors using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Results showed that bark thickness and bark harvesting are major factors affecting resistance of Q. suber to fire. Fire vulnerability was higher for trees with thin bark (young or recently debarked individuals) and decreased with increasing bark thickness until cork was 3-4 cm thick. This bark thickness corresponds to the moment when exploited trees are debarked again, meaning that exploited trees are vulnerable to fire during a longer period. Exploited trees were also more likely to be top-killed than unexploited trees, even for the same bark thickness. Additionally, vulnerability to fire increased with burn severity and with tree diameter, and was higher in trees burned in early summer or located in drier south-facing aspects. We provided tree response models useful to help estimating the impact of fire and to support management decisions. The results suggested that an appropriate management of surface fuels and changes in the bark harvesting regime (e.g. debarking coexisting trees in different years or increasing the harvesting cycle) would decrease vulnerability to fire and contribute to the conservation of cork oak ecosystems.     

Divergence in parental care, habitat selection and larval life history between two species of Peruvian poison frogs: an experimental analysis

Changes in the nature of the ecological resources exploited by a species can lead to the evolution of novel suites of behaviours. We identified a case in which the transition from large pool use to the use of very small breeding pools in neotropical poison frogs (family Dendrobatidae) is associated with the evolution of a suite of behaviours, including biparental care (from uniparental care) and social monogamy (from promiscuity). We manipulated breeding pool size in order to demonstrate experimentally that breeding habitat selection strategy has evolved in concert with changes in parental care and mating system. We also manipulated intra- and interspecific larval interactions to demonstrate that larval adaptation to the use of very small pools for breeding affected the evolution of larval competition and cannibalism. Our results illustrate the intimate connection between breeding pool ecology, parental care and mating strategies in Peruvian poison frogs.     

No correlation between the diversity and productivity of assemblages: evidence from the phytophage and predator assemblages in various cotton agroecosystems

Biodiversity research has shown that primary productivity increases with plant species number, especially in many experimental grassland systems. Here, we assessed the correlation between productivity and diversity of phytophages and natural enemy assemblages associated with planting date and intercropping in four cotton agroecosystems. Twenty-one pairs of data were used to determine Pearson correlations between species richness, total number of individuals, diversity indices and productivity for each assemblage every five days from 5 June to 15 September 2012. At the same trophic level, the productivity exhibited a significant positive correlation with species richness of the phytophage or predator assemblage. A significant correlation was found between productivity and total number of individuals in most cotton fields. However, no significant correlations were observed between productivity and diversity indices (including indices of energy flow diversity and numerical diversity) in most cotton fields for either the phytophage or the predator assemblages. Species richness of phytophage assemblage and total individual numbers were significantly correlated with primary productivity. Also, species richness of natural enemy assemblage and total number of individuals correlated with phytophage assemblage productivity. A negative but not significant correlation occurred between the indices of numerical diversity and energy flow diversity and lower trophic-level productivity in the cotton-phytophage and phytophage-predator assemblages for most intercropped cotton agroecosystems. Our results clearly showed that there were no correlations between diversity indices and productivity within the same or lower trophic levels within the phytophage and predator assemblages in cotton agroecosystems, and inter-cropped cotton fields had a stronger ability to support the natural enemy assemblage and potentially to reduce phytophages.     

The effects of cannibalism on Amazonian poison frog egg and tadpole deposition and survivorship in Heliconia axil pools

This study investigated the influence of cannibalism on egg and larval mortality, and on the deposition strategies of adults, in a tropical anuran breeding in very small leaf axil pools. Patterns of egg and tadpole deposition and mortality in the Amazonian poison frog, Dendrobates ventrimaculatus, were monitored in rainforest near Pompeya in Sucumbios Province, Ecuador. Oviposition and tadpole deposition typically ocurred in leaf axils of Heliconia plants. Pools typically received more than one oviposition. Egg survivorship was low, and significantly lower when eggs were deposited in pools with large tadpoles, indicating that cannibalism is an important source of mortality. Tadpole survivorship was also associated with the presence of other tadpoles: most pools ended with only one surviving tadpole, regardless of the number of tadpoles deposited in the pool. Egg deposition was signifcantly less likely for pools that had a tadpole in them, suggesting that adults can detect the presence of tadpoles and avoid ovipositing in pools that contain them. This hypothesis was tested with a series of pool choice experiments, which revealed that D. ventrimaculatus avoid placing either eggs or tadpoles into a pool which contains a large tadpole. Several hypotheses which could explain multiple deposition in this species are discussed. Received: 14 September 1998 / Accepted: 25 January 1999     

Reproductive habitat selection in alien and native populations of the genus Discoglossus

The existence of suitable breeding habitats is an important factor explaining the regional presence of an anuran species. This study examined patterns of habitat selection in populations of three species of the genus Discoglossus: Discoglossus galganoi (south-western Iberian Peninsula), Discoglossus scovazzi (Morocco) and Discoglossus pictus (three different areas were included in the study: Sicily, Tunisia and north-eastern Iberian Peninsula). The populations of D. pictus on the Iberian Peninsula are allochthonous, and analysis of these patterns may provide insights into the processes that regulate the invasion phase. The hypotheses tested were: (i) congeneric species show the same patterns of habitat selection, and alien species have been established following these patterns; (ii) there are differences in species associations between assemblages structured deterministically and by chance, i.e. native versus invaded assemblages. The larval habitats of three species of this genus were characterized by measuring physical and chemical parameters of the water bodies. We examined the covariation between the presence of Discoglossus species and the species richness of sympatric anurans, and investigated a possible relationship between morphological similarity (as a proxy of functional group) and overlap in habitat use. The results showed that congeneric species are morphologically conservative and also select very similar types of aquatic habitat. The alien population and other sympatric species showed a high degree of overlap in habitat use, which was greater than that observed in the native assemblage with a similar functional richness. Species associations were not structured on the basis of morphological similarity in any of the assemblages. Among native populations, the presence of Discoglossus was either negatively correlated or not significantly correlated with species richness. Only the alien population showed a positive correlation between its presence and species richness, which suggests a loss of assemblage structure.     

马尾松-木荷不同比例混交林种内和种间竞争强度

分析不同比例组成的马尾松(Pinus massoniana)-木荷(Schima superba)混交林树木间的竞争关系,可为营造种间关系协调的马尾松混交林提供参考依据.以马尾松-木荷混交林为研究对象,根据其混交比例分别类型Ⅰ(对照,10马)、类型Ⅱ(8马2木)、类型Ⅲ(7马3木)、类型Ⅳ(6马4木)4种类型设置标准地...