The MAL proteolipid is necessary for normal apical transport and accurate sorting of the influenza virus hemagglutinin in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells

The MAL (MAL/VIP17) proteolipid is a nonglycosylated integral membrane protein expressed in a restricted pattern of cell types, including T lymphocytes, myelin-forming cells, and polarized epithelial cells. Transport of the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) to the apical surface of epithelial Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells appears to be mediated by a pathway involving glycolipid- and cholesterol- enriched membranes (GEMs). In MDCK cells, MAL has been proposed previously as being an element of the protein machinery for the GEM-dependent apical transport pathway. Using an antisense oligonucleotide-based strategy and a newly generated monoclonal antibody to canine MAL, herein we have approached the effect of MAL depletion on HA transport in MDCK cells. We have found that MAL depletion diminishes the presence of HA in GEMs, reduces the rate of HA transport to the cell surface, inhibits the delivery of HA to the apical surface, and produces partial missorting of HA to the basolateral membrane. These effects were corrected by ectopic expression of MAL in MDCK cells whose endogenous MAL protein was depleted. Our results indicate that MAL is necessary for both normal apical transport and accurate sorting of HA.     

MAL regulates clathrin-mediated endocytosis at the apical surface of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells

MAL is an integral protein component of the machinery for apical transport in epithelial Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. To maintain its distribution, MAL cycles continuously between the plasma membrane and the Golgi complex. The clathrin-mediated route for apical internalization is known to differ from that at the basolateral surface. Herein, we report that MAL depends on the clathrin pathway for apical internalization. Apically internalized polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR), which uses clathrin for endocytosis, colocalized with internalized MAL in the same apical vesicles. Time-lapse confocal microscopic analysis revealed cotransport of pIgR and MAL in the same endocytic structures. Immunoelectron microscopic analysis evidenced colabeling of MAL with apically labeled pIgR in pits and clathrin-coated vesicles. Apical internalization of pIgR was abrogated in cells with reduced levels of MAL, whereas this did not occur either with its basolateral entry or the apical internalization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins, which does not involve clathrin. Therefore, MAL is critical for efficient clathrin-mediated endocytosis at the apical surface in MDCK cells.     

Influenza M2 proton channel activity selectively inhibits trans-Golgi network release of apical membrane and secreted proteins in polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney cells

The function of acidification in protein sorting along the biosynthetic pathway has been difficult to elucidate, in part because reagents used to alter organelle pH affect all acidified compartments and are poorly reversible. We have used a novel approach to examine the role of acidification in protein sorting in polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. We expressed the influenza virus M2 protein, an acid-activated ion channel that equilibrates lumenal and cytosolic pH, in polarized MDCK cells and examined the consequences on the targeting and delivery of apical and basolateral proteins. M2 activity affects the pH of only a subset of acidified organelles, and its activity can be rapidly reversed using ion channel blockers (Henkel, J.R., G. Apodaca, Y. Altschuler, S. Hardy, and O.A. Weisz. 1998. Mol. Biol. Cell. 8:2477-2490; Henkel, J.R., J.L. Popovich, G.A. Gibson, S.C. Watkins, and O.A. Weisz. 1999. J. Biol. Chem. 274:9854-9860). M2 expression significantly decreased the kinetics of cell surface delivery of the apical membrane protein influenza hemagglutinin, but not of the basolaterally delivered polymeric immunoglobulin receptor. Similarly, the kinetics of apical secretion of a soluble form of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase were reduced with no effect on the basolaterally secreted fraction. Interestingly, M2 activity had no effect on the rate of secretion of a nonglycosylated protein (human growth hormone [hGH]) that was secreted equally from both surfaces. However, M2 slowed apical secretion of a glycosylated mutant of hGH that was secreted predominantly apically. Our results suggest a role for acidic trans-Golgi network pH in signal-mediated loading of apical cargo into forming vesicles.     

N-Glycans mediate the apical sorting of a GPI-anchored, raft-associated protein in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells.

Glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI)- anchored proteins are preferentially transported to the apical cell surface of polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. It has been assumed that the GPI anchor itself acts as an apical determinant by its interaction with sphingolipid-cholesterol rafts. We modified the rat growth hormone (rGH), an unglycosylated, unpolarized secreted protein, into a GPI-anchored protein and analyzed its surface delivery in polarized MDCK cells. The addition of a GPI anchor to rGH did not lead to an increase in apical delivery of the protein. However, addition of N-glycans to GPI-anchored rGH resulted in predominant apical delivery, suggesting that N-glycans act as apical sorting signals on GPI-anchored proteins as they do on transmembrane and secretory proteins. In contrast to the GPI-anchored rGH, a transmembrane form of rGH which was not raft-associated accumulated intracellularly. Addition of N-glycans to this chimeric protein prevented intracellular accumulation and led to apical delivery.     

Specific Lectin Binding to Beta1 Integrin and Fibronectin on the Apical Membrane of Madin-Darby Canine Kidney Cells

Although lectins have previously been used to identify specific cell types in the kidney and various other tissues, the proteins labeled were not identified. We hypothesized that fluorescently labeled lectins could provide a useful tool for direct labeling of membrane-associated glycoproteins. Protein fractions from Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were exposed to a panel of 16 fluorescently labeled lectins to identify suitable lectin-protein pairs. Peanut agglutinin (PNA) selectively bound a 220-240 kDa O-linked glycoprotein with a slightly acidic isoelectric point, while Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA) labeled a 130 kDa glycoprotein with a highly acidic isoelectric point. Both proteins were readily labeled by lectins applied to the apical surface of living confluent cells. The proteins were isolated by lectin affinity columns and identified by mass spectrometry. Peptides from the PNA-binding protein shared molecular weight and amino acid composition with fibronectin. Fragments of the SNA-binding protein showed amino-acid identity with peptides from beta1 integrin. The identities of these proteins were validated by Western blotting. Binding of PNA to a 220 kDa protein was inhibited by an anti-fibronectin antibody, and binding of a 130 kDa protein by SNA was diminished by an anti-beta1 integrin antibody. We conclude that PNA and SNA can be used as specific markers for fibronectin and beta1 integrin, respectively, in MDCK cells.     

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 acts upstream of ADP-ribosylation factor 6 and Rac1 to regulate epithelial cell migration

Cell sheet movement during epithelial wound closure is a complex process involving collective cell migration. We have found that glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) activity is required for membrane protrusion and crawling of cells at the wound edge and those behind it in wounded Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cell monolayers. RNA interference-based silencing of GSK-3alpha and GSK-3beta expression also results in slowed cell sheet migration, with the effect being more pronounced with knockdown of GSK-3beta. Both GSK-3alpha and GSK-3beta are in activated states during the most active phase of cell migration. In addition to having a positive control or permissive, rather than negative, function in MDCK cell migration, GSK-3 appears to act upstream of the small GTPases ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) and Rac1. Expression of constitutively active ARF6 restores a protrusive, migratory phenotype in cells treated with GSK-3 inhibitors. It does not, however, restore to normal levels the directional polarization of cells behind the wound edge toward the wound area, implying the existence of a separate ARF6-independent branch of the GSK-3 pathway that regulates proper wound-directed polarization of these cells. Finally, inhibition of GSK-3 also strongly reduces activation of Rac1 and cell scatter in response to hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor, which triggers dispersal and migration of cells in monolayer culture as fibroblast-like individual cells, a mode of epithelial cell motility distinct from the collective migration of wound closure.     

WNT Activates the AAK1 Kinase to Promote Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis of LRP6 and Establish a Negative Feedback Loop

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Examination of the Role of ADP-Ribosylation Factor and Phospholipase D Activation in Regulated Exocytosis in Chromaffin and PC12 Cells

Abstract: The possible role of ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF)-activated and constitutive phospholipase D (PLD) activity in regulated exocytosis of preformed secretory granules in adrenal chromaffin and PC12 cells was examined. With use of digitonin-permeabilised cells, the effect of GTP analogues and exogenous ARF1 on PLD activity was determined. No evidence was seen for ARF-stimulated PLD activity in these cell types. Exocytosis from cytosol-depleted permeabilised chromaffin cells was not increased by adding recombinant nonmyristoylated or myristoylated ARF1, and exocytosis from both cell types was resistant to brefeldin A (BFA). Addition of bacterial PLD with demonstrably high activity in permeabilised chromaffin cells did not increase exocytosis in cytosol-depleted chromaffin cells. Diversion of PLD activity from production of phosphatidic acid (PA) due to the presence of 4% ethanol did not inhibit exocytosis triggered by Ca²⁺ or poorly hydrolysable GTP analogues in permeabilised chromaffin or PC12 cells. These results indicate that exocytosis in these cell types does not appear to require a BFA-sensitive ARF and the triggering of exocytosis does not require PLD activity and formation of PA. These findings rule out a general requirement for PLD activity during regulated exocytosis.     

Attachment of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells to extracellular matrix: role of a laminin binding protein related to the 37/67 kDa laminin receptor in the development of plasma membrane polarization.

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells have been extensively used as a model for the study of epithelial polarization. The contacts between the cell and extra-cellular matrix (ECM) provide a signal for the polarization of apical membrane markers. In order to study the molecular basis of these contacts, MDCK cells extracts in Triton X-100 were affinity-purified on laminin, yielding polypeptides of 100-110 and 36 kDa, but only the second one could be enzymatically iodinated from the cell surface. This protein was also recognized by an antibody against the 37/67-kDa laminin/elastin family of proteins. Different polypeptides were purified by the same method on type I collagen. An antibody developed against the polypeptides purified on laminin recognized also a 67-kDa protein, blocked 125I-laminin binding to a population of high affinity (1.5 nM KD) binding sites and caused a significant decrease in cell attachment and spreading to laminin or endogenous ECM. This antibody did not interfere with MDCK cell attachment to fibronectin or collagen matrices, but still impaired cell spreading. An apical MDCK plasma membrane protein (184 kDa), fully polarized in untreated cells, was partially mispolarized after treatment with anti-36 kDa antibody. These results are consistent with a model of various ECM receptors operating together in these cells, and show an important role of a non-integrin 36-kDa laminin binding protein related to the 67-kDa laminin receptor family in cell attachment, spreading and polarization.     

Regulation of apical localization of the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter by WNK4 in polarized epithelial cells

Missense mutations in the WNK4 gene have been postulated to cause pseudohypoaldosteronism type II (PHAII), an autosomal-dominant disorder characterized by hyperkalemia and hypertension. Previous reports using Xenopus oocytes showed that wild-type WNK4 expression inhibited surface expression of the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC), while a disease-causing mutant lost the inhibitory effect on NCC surface expression. To determine if these changes observed in oocytes really occur in polarized epithelial cells, we generated stable MDCK II cell lines expressing NCC alone or NCC plus wild-type WNK4 or a disease-causing (D564A) WNK4. In contrast to the apical localization of NCC without co-expression of WNK4, immunofluorescence microscopy and biotin surface labeling revealed that this apical localization was equally decreased by both the wild-type and the mutant WNK4 expression. Apical localizations of two PHAII-unrelated apical transporters, sodium-independent amino acid transporter, BAT1 and bile salt export pump, Bsep, were also found to be decreased by both wild-type and mutant WNK4 expression. These results indicate that the regulation of NCC was not related to the disease-causing mutation and not restricted to the PHAII-related specific transporters. The regulation of intracellular localization of NCC by WNK4 might not be involved in the pathogenesis of PHAII.     

葡萄糖浓度波动对原代培养的大鼠血管细胞和肾细胞的影响

探讨葡萄糖浓度波动对体外培养的原代大鼠血管细胞和肾细胞的影响。取SD大鼠的主动脉和肾脏进行血管细胞和肾细胞的体外原代培养,每种细胞均分为6组:正常对照组、持续高糖组、持续低糖组、波动组I、波动组II、波动组III。实验24h后,测定细胞乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)的泄漏率,细胞液中的β-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(NAG)的活力,细胞内还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)的活力。结果表明葡萄糖浓度波动各组均能对大鼠血管细胞和肾细胞造成损伤,使细胞外液LDH、NAG的泄漏量明显增加,细胞内GSH、SOD活力明显减少,与持续高糖组和持续低糖组比较差异显著(P<0.001)。且葡萄糖浓度波动对肾细胞的损伤比血管细胞更为明显。说明葡萄糖浓度波动能够导致大鼠血管细胞和肾细胞的损伤,并且其损伤远远大于持续高糖或持续低糖的单独作用效果,损伤的结果与低糖作用细胞的时间呈正相关,在相同的损伤条件下肾细胞比血管细胞对葡萄糖浓度波动更为敏感,损伤更为严重。     

Differential Responses of the Phosphorylation of Ribosomal Protein S6 to Nerve Growth Factor and Epidermal Growth Factor in PC 12 Cells

Previous studies from this laboratory have shown that the phosphorylation of the S6 protein of the ribosomes is catalyzed by at least two different and separable kinase activities in PC12 cells. One of these activities is increased by treatment of the cells with nerve growth factor, the other by treatment of the cells with epidermal growth factor. The present work shows that these two factors stimulate the phosphorylation of S6 with quite different kinetics, and that both the number of phosphates incorporated into S6 and the phosphopeptide pattern of S6 are different in cells treated with nerve growth factor than in cells treated with epidermal growth factor. The characteristics of the nerve growth factor-sensitive S6 kinase and of the epidermal growth factor-sensitive kinase were also clearly different. Substrate specificity and inhibitor studies indicated that neither was identical to cyclic AMP-dependent kinase, kinase C, or the calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinases. However, two major phosphopeptides produced by S6 phosphorylation in nerve growth factor-treated cells were also seen on phosphorylation of S6 by cyclic AMP-dependent kinase in vitro. In addition, when rat liver 40S ribosomal subunits were pretreated with cyclic AMP-dependent kinase in vitro, the action of the nerve growth factor-sensitive S6 kinase was increased about twofold.     

ADP核糖基化因子的结构及其功能机制

ADP核糖基化因子(ADP-ribosylation factor,ARF)是Ras基因超家族的成员,它们是大小约20kDa的鸟嘌呤核苷酸结合蛋白。ARF最初发现作为霍乱毒素ADP-核糖转移酶的辅助因子共同作用于G蛋白α亚基,促使其ADP-核糖基化。近来人们发现ARF还参与囊泡运输、调节磷脂酶D的活性,在细胞内物质运输和信号转导过程中具有更加重要的生理功能。现就ARF的发现、分类、结构和功能、表达以及生理功能作一综述。     

Involvement of the Interaction of Afadin with ZO-1 in the Formation of Tight Junctions in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney Cells

Tight junctions (TJs) and adherens junctions (AJs) are major junctional apparatuses in epithelial cells. Claudins and junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs) are major cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) at TJs, whereas cadherins and nectins are major CAMs at AJs. Claudins and JAMs are associated with ZO proteins, whereas cadherins are associated with β- and α-catenins, and nectins are associated with afadin. We previously showed that nectins first form cell-cell adhesions where the cadherin-catenin complex is recruited to form AJs, followed by the recruitment of the JAM-ZO and claudin-ZO complexes to the apical side of AJs to form TJs. It is not fully understood how TJ components are recruited to the apical side of AJs. We studied the roles of afadin and ZO-1 in the formation of TJs in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Before the formation of TJs, ZO-1 interacted with afadin through the two proline-rich regions of afadin and the SH3 domain of ZO-1. During and after the formation of TJs, ZO-1 dissociated from afadin and associated with JAM-A. Knockdown of afadin impaired the formation of both AJs and TJs in MDCK cells, whereas knockdown of ZO-1 impaired the formation of TJs, but not AJs. Re-expression of full-length afadin restored the formation of both AJs and TJs in afadin-knockdown MDCK cells, whereas re-expression of afadin-ΔPR1–2, which is incapable of binding to ZO-1, restored the formation of AJs, but not TJs. These results indicate that the transient interaction of afadin with ZO-1 is necessary for the formation of TJs in MDCK cells.     

Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Stimulation of Glial Cells Protects Dopamine Neurons from 6-Hydroxydopamine Toxicity: Involvement of the Glutathione System

Abstract: Neurotrophic factors have been shown to support the survival and promote the recovery of injured neurons both in vivo and in vitro. Here, we investigated whether glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) could modify the damage to dopamine (DA) neurons in mesencephalic cultures caused by the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). The data show that bFGF, but not GDNF, effectively protected DA neurons from 6-OHDA toxicity. Because bFGF is a glial mitogen, whereas GDNF is not, we tested whether glial cells participated in bFGF neuroprotection. Inhibition of glial cell proliferation completely prevented the protective effect of bFGF. Because oxidative events have been associated with 6-OHDA-induced damage, we examined the levels of glutathione (GSH) in control and bFGF-treated cultures. Cultures treated with bFGF had higher levels of GSH, which increased even further in response to 6-OHDA exposure. Control cultures failed to up-regulate GSH levels after 6-OHDA, suggesting a relationship between increased GSH levels and protection from 6-OHDA. Inhibition of glial cell proliferation prevented the rise in GSH in bFGF-treated cultures and abolished the increase after 6-OHDA treatment. Protection from 6-OHDA by bFGF was also diminished when GSH levels were decreased by the GSH synthesis inhibitor l -buthionine sulfoximine. Our study shows that stimulation of glial cells by bFGF allows the up-regulation of antioxidant defenses and supports cell survival during oxidative stress.     

Gamahonolides A,B, and Gamahorin,Novel Antifungal Compounds from Stromata of Epichloe typhina on Phleum pratense

Four novel antifungal compounds, gamahonolides A and B, gamahorin, and 5-hydroxyl-4-phenyl-2(5H)-furanone, were isolated from stromata of Epichloe typhina on Phleum pratense. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic methods. The absolute configuration of gamahonolide A was determined by its ORD spectrum and ¹H-NMR shift difference between the diastereomeric pair of its O-methylmandelates. The stereochemistry of gamahorin was determined by NOE difference spectra and its CD spectrum.     

Isolation of Cell Surface Membranes from Cultured C6 Glioblastoma Cells

Abstract: Plasma membranes were isolated from C6 glioblastoma cells by two methods. In the first method cells were treated with concanavalin A and lysed in hypotonic medium. After partial separation of plasma membranes from other cell material, the lectin was displaced with a-methyl-D-mannoside. In the second method untreated cells or cells iodinated in a lactoperoxidase-catalyzed reaction were homogenized in isotonic medium. Membrane fractions obtaincd by either homogenization procedure were further purified by rate zonal and equilibrium centrifugations into linear density gradients. Disruption of the glioblastoma cell membrane gives rise to heterogeneous assemblies of mem- brane fragments. Two populations of plasma membranes were isolated from untreated and from iodinated cells: a lighter)membrane fraction characterized by relatively lower sedimentation velocity and buoyant density, and a heavier membrane fraction of relatively faster sedimentation velocity and higher buoyant density. Both fractions showed electrophoretic patterns similar to those of ¹²⁵I-labeled cell surface proteins. Their specific (Na⁺+ K⁺)-ATPase activity was seven- to eightfold the homogenate activity (recovery, 13.1%). Both fractions were, however, still contaminated by smooth endo- plasmic reticulum, as judged from the activity 0: NADPH-dependent cytochrome c reductase (recovery, 2.4%). It is suggested that plasma membrane fragments present in the two fractions might differ in the organization of their structures, e.g., membrane vesicle intactness and membrane orientation.     

Association of Rab25 and Rab11a with the Apical Recycling System of Polarized Madin–Darby Canine Kidney Cells

Recent evidence suggests that apical and basolateral endocytic pathways in epithelia converge in an apically located, pericentriolar endosomal compartment termed the apical recycling endosome. In this compartment, apically and basolaterally internalized membrane constituents are thought to be sorted for recycling back to their site of origin or for transcytosis to the opposite plasma membrane domain. We report here that in the epithelial cell line Madin–Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK), antibodies to Rab11a label an apical pericentriolar endosomal compartment that is dependent on intact microtubules for its integrity. Furthermore, this compartment is accessible to a membrane-bound marker (dimeric immunoglobulin A [IgA]) internalized from either the apical or basolateral pole, functionally defining it as the apical recycling endosome. We have also examined the role of a closely related epithelial-specific Rab, Rab25, in the regulation of membrane recycling and transcytosis in MDCK cells. When cDNA encoding Rab25 was transfected into MDCK cells, the protein colocalized with Rab11a in subapical vesicles. Rab25 transfection also altered the distribution of Rab11a, causing the coalescence of immunoreactivity into multiple denser vesicular structures not associated with the centrosome. Nevertheless, nocodazole still dispersed these vesicles, and dimeric IgA internalized from either the apical or basolateral membrane was detected in endosomes labeled with antibodies to both Rab11a and Rab25. Overexpression of Rab25 decreased the rate of IgA transcytosis and of apical, but not basolateral, recycling of internalized ligand. Conversely, expression of the dominant-negative Rab25T26N did not alter either apical recycling or transcytosis. These results indicate that both Rab11a and Rab25 associate with the apical recycling system of epithelial cells and suggest that Rab25 may selectively regulate the apical recycling and/or transcytotic pathways.     

Expression of Hyaluronectin by C-6 Glial Cells at High Density

Hyaluronectin, a brain glycoprotein that has been localized to the nodes of Ranvier in vivo and to oligodendrocytes in primary cultures of neonatal rat brain cells, was shown by using an unlabeled immunoperoxidase method to be present in C-6 glial cells grown to high density. The density-dependent expression of this glycoprotein is in accordance with the known properties of the glial stem cells, i.e., induction of differentiated properties such as 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide-3'-phosphohydrolase, glutamine synthetase, S-100 protein, and glial fibrillary acidic protein.     

Regulation of Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Release from Rat C6 Glioblastoma Cells

Abstract: We have monitored glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) secretion from rat C6 glioblastoma cells by ELISA. Representative cytokines, neurotrophins, growth factors, neuropeptides, and pharmacological agents were tested for their ability to modulate GDNF release. Whereas most factors tested had minimal effect, a 24-h treatment with fibroblast growth factor-1, −2, or −9 elevated secreted GDNF protein levels five- to 10-fold. The proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and lipopolysaccharide elevated GDNF release 1.5- to twofold. Parallel studies aimed at elucidating intracellular events that may regulate GDNF synthesis/release demonstrated the involvement of multiple signaling pathways. GDNF levels were increased by phorbol 12,13-didecanoate (10 n M ) activation of protein kinase C, the Ca²⁺ ionophore A23187 (1 µ M ), okadaic acid (10 n M ) inhibition of type-2A protein phosphatases, nitric oxide donors (1 m M ), and H₂O₂ (1 m M )-induced oxidative stress. Elevation of cyclic AMP levels by either forskolin (10 µ M ) or dibutyryl cyclic AMP (1 m M ) repressed GDNF secretion, as did treatment with the glucocorticoid dexamethasone (1 µ M ). Our results demonstrate that diverse biological factors are capable of modulating GDNF protein levels and that multiple signal transduction systems can regulate GDNF synthesis and/or release.