The Role of Homegardens for Food and Nutrition Security in Uganda

The contribution of homegardens to the food and nutrition security of rural farmers has rarely been explored empirically. Our study assesses the influence of homegarden agrobiodiversity, production system parameters, and socioeconomic factors on household dietary diversity and anthropometric conditions in southwest Uganda. Plant inventories of 102 homegardens were followed by two 24-h recalls (n =?589) and anthropometric measurements (n =?325) of household members, as well as household food insecurity questionnaires (n =?95). Regression models explained between 16 and 50% of variance in dietary diversity and between 21 and 75% in anthropometric measurements. Results indicate that supporting diverse homegarden systems can in part reduce food insecurity in Uganda. We conclude with recommendations for further strengthening the role of homegardens in improving dietary and anthropometric outcomes.     

Plant management and biodiversity conservation in Náhuatl homegardens of the Tehuacán Valley,Mexico

Background

The Tehuacán Valley is one of the areas of Mesoamerica with the oldest history of plant management. Homegardens are among the most ancient management systems that currently provide economic benefits to people and are reservoirs of native biodiversity. Previous studies estimated that 30% of the plant richness of homegardens of the region are native plant species from wild populations. We studied in Náhuatl communities the proportion of native plant species maintained in homegardens, hypothesizing to find a proportion similar to that estimated at regional level, mainly plant resources maintained for edible, medicinal and ornamental purposes.

Methods

We analysed the composition of plant species of homegardens and their similarity with surrounding Cloud Forest (CF), Tropical Rainforest (TRF), Tropical Dry forest (TDF), and Thorn-Scrub Forest (TSF). We determined density, frequency and biomass of plant species composing homegardens and forests through vegetation sampling of a total of 30 homegardens and nine plots of forests, and documented ethnobotanical information on use, management, and economic benefits from plants maintained in homegardens.

Results

A total of 281 plant species was recorded with 12 use categories, 115 ornamental, 92 edible, and 50 medicinal plant species. We recorded 49.8 ± 23.2 (average ± S.D.) woody plant species (shrubs and trees) per homegarden. In total, 34% species are native to the Tehuacán Valley and nearly 16% are components of the surrounding forests. A total of 176 species were cultivated through seeds, vegetative propagules or transplanted entire individual plants, 71 tolerated, and 23 enhanced. The highest species richness and diversity were recorded in homegardens from the CF zone (199 species), followed by those from the TRF (157) and those from the TDF (141) zones.

Conclusion

Homegardens provide a high diversity of resources for subsistence of local households and significantly contribute to conservation of native biodiversity. The highest diversity was recorded in homegardens where the neighbouring forests had the least diversity, suggesting that management of homegardens aims at compensating scarcity of naturally available plant resources. Cultivated species were markedly more abundant than plants under other management forms. Diversity harboured and management techniques make homegardens keystones in strategies for regional biodiversity conservation.

     

The Analysis of Homegarden Plant Diversity at the Mongolian Household Level in Horqin Sandy Land——A Case Study in Horqin Left Wing Real Banner of Inner Mongolia

In order to show the function of agricultural protection of biodiversity at the level of homegarden, comparative analysis was operated between 20 farmer households through random sampling and farmers recommended in Horqin Left Wing Real Banner Tongliao city Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and 10 farmer households of the Han nationality in the neighborhood. Thirty sampling plots of homegardens are investigated. The result indicates there are 100 homegarden plants in Bashou village, 84 in Hariwusu livestock farm, and 87 in Gongjihao village. It involves the cultivated and wild vegetables, fruits, and plants used for ornamental, medicine and forage. The comparative analysis of species richness demonstrates, among these villages the species richness of Bashou village is highest, while Hariwusu livestock farm is lowest. The former village contributes greatly to the conservation of plant biodiversity. These differences result from their respectively different natural conditions, homegarden areas, homegarden history, homegarden management conditions, traditional knowledge and culture understanding of homegarden manager, local farmers and herdsmen on homegarden plants.The homegarden plants from the three investigated villages are cataloged preliminary in the end of the paper.     

科尔沁沙地蒙古族户级水平庭园植物多样性分析——以内蒙古通辽市科尔沁左翼后旗的研究为例

为了表明农户庭园在户级水平上对农业生物多样性保护的作用,在内蒙古通辽市科尔沁左翼后旗采用随机抽样和农户推荐选择20个农户,同时在邻近地区的汉族地区选择10个农户作为对比分析。在此基础上对其家庭庭园采用典型取样法设立30个样方进行调查。结果表明：巴首嘎查庭园植物有100种、哈日乌苏种畜场共有84种、公济号村有87种,包括栽培及野生蔬菜、水果、观赏、药用、饲用等植物。三个村庄庭园植物物种丰富度分析比较发现巴首嘎查的物种丰富度相对最高,而哈日乌苏种畜场的相对最低,反映巴首村对庭园物种多样性保护的贡献相对最大。这些差异是由于自然条件、庭园面积、庭园历史、庭园管理条件及庭园管理者、当地农牧民对庭园植物的传统知识和文化的认识的差异所造成。文末还对调查的三个村庄的庭园植物进行了初步编目。     

Anthropogenic dispersion of selected germplasm creates a geographic mosaic of contrasting maternal lineages in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crescentia cujete</Emphasis> from Mesoamerica

The modification of the genetic/phenotypic composition of plant populations through artificial selection occurs both through time and space. We analyzed the role of human dispersal on the geographic distribution of maternal lineages of Crescentia cujete in Mesoamerica. We sampled 28 homegarden (224 individuals) and 12 wild populations (159 individuals). Semi-structured interviews provided information on the origin of cultivated trees. Six chloroplast microsatellites allowed for the identification of 21 haplotypes, four of them exclusively in 83% of homegarden trees. Wild haplotypes from local C. cujete and Crescentia alata were found at low frequencies (17%) under cultivation. Cultivated and wild haplotypes constituted two different haplogroups. Accordingly, barriers to seed dispersal were detected among neighboring cultivated and wild populations. Recorded events of human dispersal of cuttings and seeds attaining up to >?200 km agreed with homegardens’ lower diversity (Nei’s h?=?0.55, dropping to 0.32 when excluding wild haplotypes). Wild populations displayed high diversity (h?=?0.71) and isolation by distance, in agreement with physiographic provinces. Our results support the native status of wild C. cujete and a Pre-Columbian introduction of cultivated lineages that generated a novel genetic mosaic superimposed on native maternal lineages. The results reveal the active role of farmers in maintaining the identity of cultivated lineages through time, while chloroplast capture from local congeners has increased the diversity of maternal lineages under cultivation. Additional data are needed on the origins of cultivated lineages, but our results contribute new insights into tree domestication in this center of crop diversity.     

An invasive plant provides refuge to native plant species in an intensely grazed ecosystem

Invasion by exotic plant species and herbivory can individually alter native plant species diversity, but their interactive effects in structuring native plant communities remain little studied. Many exotic plant species escape from their co-evolved specialized herbivores in their native range (in accordance with the enemy release hypothesis). When these invasive plants are relatively unpalatable, they may act as nurse plants by reducing herbivore damage on co-occurring native plants, thereby structuring native plant communities. However, the potential for unpalatable invasive plants to structure native plant communities has been little investigated. Here, we tested whether presence of an unpalatable exotic invader Opuntia ficus-indica was associated with the structure of native plant communities in an ecosystem with a long history of grazing by ungulate herbivores. Along 17 transects (each 1000 m long), we conducted a native vegetation survey in paired invaded and uninvaded plots. Plots that harboured O. ficus-indica had higher native plant species richness and Shannon–Wiener diversity H′ than uninvaded plots. However, mean species evenness J was similar between invaded and uninvaded plots. There was no significant correlation between native plant diversity and percentage plot cover by O. ficus-indica. Presence of O. ficus-indica was associated with a compositional change in native community assemblages between paired invaded and uninvaded plots. Although these results are only correlative, they suggest that unpalatable exotic plants may play an important ecological role as refugia for maintenance of native plant diversity in intensely grazed ecosystems.     

Species composition,similarity, and structure of mayan homegardens in tixpeual and tixcacaltuyub,yucatan, Mexico

We studied species composition, similarity, and structure of homegardens in two Yucatecan Maya communities, Tixpeual and Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatan, Mexico. The number of gardens sampled per village was 20 and 22; total area sampled was very similar, 45,265 m² and 40,150 m²; the number of trees and shrubs present was 5651 and 5603; and number of species was 135 and 133, respectively. Diversity was low for both sites (H′= 1.6), as were the correlation coefficients (r) for the species-area and individuals-area correlations. The relatively low values obtained for the structural parameters reflect the random pattern of plant incorporation to the gardens, the variability in the proportion of constantly used and not constantly used garden area, and a certain uniformity in the number of species used and number of individuals present, and the relationship between these parameters and garden size. All these reflect the uniqueness of each homegarden, which depends upon the cultural background of the owner. We noticed a trend towards a change in homegarden structure and function in response to the modernization process. Homegardens in villages in the outskirts of cities tend to have more ornamental species and commercial fruit plants than homegardens in isolated villages.     

Micropropagation of Ajuga species: a mini review

The genus Ajuga L., belonging to Lamiaceae family, is widespread. The demand for Ajuga species has risen sharply because of their medicinal, ornamental, and pharmacological properties. These wide-ranging plants are being rapidly depleted due to over-collection for ornamental and medicinal purposes, as well as by habitat destruction and deforestation. Ajuga boninsimae, A. bracteosa, A. ciliate, A. genevensis, A. incisa, A. makinoi, A. multiflora, A. pyramidalis, A. shikotanensis, A. reptans, and A. vestita are categorized and protected as endangered plants. In vitro plant culture has therefore emerged for the conservation and mass clonal propagation of rare plants. This mini-review covers the current in vitro scenario in the propagation of Ajuga species. Adventitious or axillary shoots are initiated on the leaf, petiole and internodes, as well as roots, nodes, and shoot tip explants. Shoot induction is predominantly dependent on plant growth regulators added to the culture medium. Full- or half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with or without auxin is used for in vitro rooting. Rooted shoots need to be acclimatized in the greenhouse with an estimated 82–100% survival rate.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Basidiophora delawarensis</Emphasis>, a new downy mildew species infecting cultivated goldenrod (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Solidago sphacelata</Emphasis>) in the USA

Species in the genus Basidiophora (Oomycota, Peronosporales) are pathogens causing downy mildew disease on several closely related plant hosts in the family Asteraceae, including the genera Conyza, Erigeron, Solidago, and Symphyotrichum. Despite their widespread occurrence, little is known about the diversity, biology, and economic impact of downy mildew pathogens of ornamental or wild plants in the Asteraceae. In June 2017, Solidago sphacelata plants of the cultivar ‘Golden Fleece’ were found in the state of Delaware, USA, showing typical symptoms of downy mildew disease. Initial morphological observations indicated the specimen belonged to the genus Basidiophora. Phylogenetic analysis of a sequence matrix of the partial cox2 mitochondrial gene using Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods showed that the Basidiophora isolate from S. sphacelata represents an undescribed species that is here described as B. delawarensis. This new species constitutes the third accepted species in the genus Basidiophora and can be distinguished from other Basidiophora species by differences in size of sporangia and sporangiophores and nucleotide sequence divergence. This new species poses a potential threat to its host, warranting close monitoring and the implementation of disease management programs.     

Accumulation and tolerance characteristics of lead in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Althaea rosea</Emphasis> Cav. and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Malva crispa</Emphasis> L.

Two ornamental plants of Althaea rosea Cav. and Malva crispa L. were exposed to various concentrations of lead (Pb) (0, 50, 100, 200 and 500 mg·kg^?1) for 70 days to evaluate the accumulating potential and the tolerance characteristics. The results showed that both plant species grown normally under Pb stress, and A. rosea had a higher tolerance than M. crispa, while M. crispa had a higher ability in Pb accumulation than A. rosea. Besides, lower Pb concentration (50 mg·kg^?1) stimulated the shoot biomass in both plant species. Pb accumulation in plants was consistent with the increase of Pb levels, and the main accumulation sites were the roots and the older leaves. In addition, the photosynthetic pigments content and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were influenced by Pb stress. In such case, both of the plants could improve the activities of antioxidant enzymes of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and the contents of the total soluble sugar and soluble protein, which reached the highest value at Pb 100 mg·kg^?1, as well as the accumulation of the total thiols (T-SH) and non-protein thiols (NP-SH) to adapt to Pb stress. Thus, it provides the theoretical basis and possibility for ornamental plants of A. rosea and M. crispa in phytoremediation of Pb contaminated areas.     

Phenotypic differentiation between wild and domesticated varieties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crescentia cujete</Emphasis>L. and culturally relevant uses of their fruits as bowls in the Yucatan Peninsula,Mexico

Background

Selection criteria are important for analyzing domestication of perennial plant species, which experience a selection pressure throughout several human generations. We analyze the preferred morphological characteristics of Crescentia cujete fruits, which are used as bowls by the Maya of Yucatan, according to the uses they are given and the phenotypic consequences of artificial selection between one wild and three domesticated varieties.

Methods

We performed 40 semi-structured interviews in seven communities. We calculated Sutrop’s salience index (S) of five classes of ceremonial and daily life uses, and of each item from the two most salient classes. We sampled 238 bowls at homes of people interviewed and compared their shape, volume and thickness with 139 fruits collected in homegardens and 179 from the wild. Morphology of varieties was assessed in fruit (n?=?114 trees) and vegetative characters (n?=?136 trees). Differences between varieties were evaluated through linear discriminant analysis (LDA).

Results

Use of bowls as containers for the Day of the Dead offerings was the most salient class (S?=?0.489) with chocolate as its most salient beverage (S?=?0.491), followed by consumption of daily beverages (S?=?0.423), especially maize-based pozol (S?=?0.412). The sacred saka’ and balche' are offered in different sized bowls during agricultural and domestic rituals. Roundness was the most relevant character for these uses, as bowls from households showed a strong selection towards round shapes compared with wild and homegarden fruits. Larger fruits from domesticated varieties were also preferred over small wild fruits, although in the household different sizes of the domesticated varieties are useful. LDA separated wild from domesticated trees (p?<?0.001) according to both fruit and vegetative variables, but domesticated varieties were not different among themselves.

Conclusions

The association between C. cujete bowls and traditional beverages in ritual and daily life situations has driven for centuries the selection of preferred fruit morphology in this tree. Selection of fruit roundness and volume has allowed for the differentiation between the wild variety and the three domesticated ones, counteracting gene flow among them. By choosing the best fruits from domesticated varieties propagated in homegardens, the Maya people model the domestication process of this important tree in their culture.

     

Ecotypic diversity of a dominant grassland species resists exotic invasion

Many species are characterized by high levels of intraspecific or ecotypic diversity, yet we know little about how diversity within species influences ecosystem processes. Using a common garden experiment, we studied how intraspecific diversity within the widespread and often dominant North American native Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve. affected invasion by Centaurea stoebe L. We experimentally manipulated Pseudoroegneria intraspecific diversity by changing the number of Pseudoroegneria ecotypes in common garden plots, using ecotypes collected throughout western North America. Invader biomass was 46% lower in mono-ecotype Pseudoroegneria plots than in control plots without any plants prior to invasion, and plots with 3–12 Pseudoroegneria ecotypes were 44% less invaded by Centaurea than the mono-ecotype plots. Across all plots, the total biomass of invading Centaurea plants was negatively correlated with total Pseudoroegneria biomass, but biotic resistance provided by high ecotypic diversity of Pseudoroegneria was not explained only by the increase in productivity that occurred with ecotypic diversity. Relative to Pseudoroegneria yield, Centaurea yield was lowest when Pseudoroegneria overyielded due to size-independent “complementarity” effects. This was not observed when overyielding was due to size-dependent effects. Our results suggest that the intraspecific diversity of a widespread and dominant species has the potential to impact invasion outcomes beyond its effects on native plant productivity and that mechanisms of biotic resistance to invaders may be to some degree independent of plant size.     

Evidence for genetic erosion of a California native tree, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Platanus racemosa</Emphasis>, via recent,ongoing introgressive hybridization with an introduced ornamental species

When non-native, genetically diverse species are introduced, hybridization with native congeners may erode the genetic composition of local species, perhaps even resulting in extinction. While such events may lead to adverse consequences at the community and ecosystem level, few studies exist on ecologically important tree species. In the genus Platanus, introgressive hybridization is widespread, and one common ornamental species, introduced to California during the late 19th century, is itself a hybrid. Our microsatellite analysis of more than 400 Platanus trees from north-central California reveals a complex pattern of invasion and hybridization in an age-structured population. By using size as a proxy for age, we have demonstrated that the Platanus population of north-central California has recently gained genetic diversity and effective population size. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and genetic admixture analysis (STRUCTURE) both reveal a strong differentiation of genotypes into two main genetic clusters, with a large number of admixed genotypes. One of the genetic clusters identified is heavily biased towards younger trees, including samples from locations with relatively recently planted ornamental trees likely to be P. × hispanica (formerly known as P. × acerifolia). We conclude that the two genetic clusters correspond to the native P. racemosa and the introduced invasive hybrid species P. × hispanica. Additional hybridization between the invasive ornamental and the native species has occurred in California, and recent hybrid trees are more likely to be younger than trees without admixture. Our findings suggest that the observed increase in genetic diversity among California Platanus is due to rampant ongoing introgression, which may be threatening the continued genetic distinctiveness of the native species. This is cause for concern from a conservation standpoint, due to a direct loss of genetic distinctiveness, and a potential reduction in habitat value of associated species.     

Water stress and kaolin spray affect herbivorous insects’ success on cotton

Ecological hypotheses of plant–insect herbivore interactions suggest that insects perform better on weakened plants and plants grown under optimal conditions are less damaged. This study tested the hypothesis that the colonization and oviposition rates by pests with different feeding strategies and levels of specialization are affected in different ways by two conditions commonly faced by commercially grown plants–water deficit and application of kaolin sprays, a reducer of abiotic plant stressors. We used four major pests of cotton as insect herbivore models. Three were chewing Lepidoptera: Alabama argillacea (Hüb.), a monophagous pest on cotton; Heliothis virescens (Fabr.), which is polyphagous, but with cotton as a primary host; and Chrysodeixis includens (Walk.), which is polyphagous, with cotton as secondary host. The fourth pest was a sap-sucking species, the polyphagous whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gen.). In both choice and no-choice trials, the three chewing pests oviposited significantly less upon water-stressed plants; the greatest effect was observed for C. includens (>90 % reduction in oviposition under choice and >58 % under no-choice conditions). In contrast, the sap-sucking B. tabaci exhibited statistically more colonization and oviposition on water-stressed plants. Application of kaolin sprays reduced colonization and oviposition by all herbivore species tested, irrespective of irrigation regime and feeding strategies.     

Effects of soil fertility on early development of wetland vegetation from soil seed bank: Focusing on biomass production and plant species diversity

To examine the effects of soil fertility on biomass production, plant species diversity, and early vegetation development, we performed a mesocosm experiment using soil seed bank under three soil fertility levels (ombrotrophic, mesotrophic, and eutrophic). Biomass production linearly increased (P < 0.01), whereas plant species diversity significantly decreased (P < 0.001) as soil fertility increased. Soil fertility seemed to play a role as an environmental sieve in early vegetation development, in turn, lead the patterns of biomass production and plant species diversity. Several Poaceae species which are forming tall and dense canopy, such as Phalaris arundinacea, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, and Zizania latifolia, showed higher importance values under fertilized condition, whereas relatively small macrophytes of Eleocharis acicularis, Carex dickinsii, and Isachne globosa mainly survived under ombrotrophic condition. Although plant species richness decreased as soil fertility increased, the percentages of perennials and exotics increased rather than annuals and natives. Predominance of perennials and exotics under eutrophic condition in early vegetation development seemed to lead a continuous decrease in plant species diversity as a result of competitive effect. A significant negative relationship between plant species diversity and biomass production (P < 0.0001) was obtained when all experimental plots are included in correlation analysis.     

Seed Dispersal by Primates and Implications for the Conservation of a Biodiversity Hotspot,the Atlantic Forest of South America

Primates play a fundamental role as seed dispersers, particularly in tropical rainforests. Because defaunation and fragmentation are leading several primate species to local extinction, it is fundamental to understand the role of primates as effective seed dispersers. Here we present a systematic review of studies of seed dispersal by primates in a biodiversity hotspot, the Atlantic Forest of South America, to 1) highlight gaps in our knowledge, 2) determine species richness and proportion of seed species dispersed, and 3) test the relationship between primate body size and the size of dispersed species. Our review found 79 studies of the diet of six ecospecies (Callithrix, Leontopithecus, Callicebus, Sapajus, Alouatta, Brachyteles) but only 20 of these report information on seed dispersal, and none of these are on Callithrix or Callicebus. We found a strong bias in the distribution of species and regions, with most of the studies concentrated in southeastern Brazil. All ecospecies dispersed a large proportion of the seed species they handled (72.1–93.6%). Brachyteles dispersed the highest diversity of plants (N = 73), followed by Sapajus (N = 66), Leontopithecus (N = 49), and Alouatta (N = 26). Although we found no significant relationship between primate body size and the size of seeds dispersed, Brachyteles disperse a higher diversity of large-seeded species than smaller-bodied primates. These results suggest that the local extinction of large primate species may lead to dramatic changes in the plant community, as many large-seeded plants are inaccessible to smaller arboreal frugivores. We propose guidelines for future research on primate seed dispersal to enable the evaluation of seed dispersal effectiveness and to improve our understanding of the fundamental role of primates in this key ecosystem process.     

Diversity of root-endophytic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma</Emphasis> from Malaysian Borneo

Trichoderma species form endophytic associations with plant roots and may provide a range of benefits to their hosts. However, few studies have systematically examined the diversity of Trichoderma species associated with plant roots in tropical regions. During the evaluation of Trichoderma isolates for use as biocontrol agents, root samples were collected from more than 58 genera in 35 plant families from a range of habitats in Malaysian Borneo. Trichoderma species were isolated from surface-sterilised roots and identified following analysis of partial translation elongation factor-1α (tef1) sequences. Species present included Trichoderma afroharzianum, Trichoderma asperelloides, Trichoderma asperellum, Trichoderma guizhouense, Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma strigosum and Trichoderma virens. Trichoderma asperellum/T. asperelloides, Trichoderma harzianum s.l. and T. virens were the most frequently isolated taxa. tef1 sequence data supported the recognition of undescribed species related to the T. harzianum complex. The results suggest that tropical plants may be a useful source of novel root-associated Trichoderma for biotechnological applications.     

Partitioning of vegetative trophic resources in the rodent community in the Terek-Kuma Lowland in the Republic of Daghestan

We have studied the quantitative and qualitative diet features of the rodent species in arid conditions of the Terek-Kuma Lowland in the Republic of Daghestan. We have determined the species composition, proportion, and diversity of food resources in the diets of the studied rodent species. The diet of rodents consists of various plants species. For example, the diet of Meriones tamariscinus consists of 29 plant species; M. meridianus, 40 species; Cricetulus migratorius, 26 species; Sylvaemus fulvipectus, 34 species; and Mus musculus, 30 species. The share of exclusively consumed plant species did not exceed 10% of the total amount of food. All pairs of rodent species have low or medium rate of diet overlapping.     

Management affects the pollinator abundance but not the reproductive success of butterfly orchids

Management of semi-natural grasslands should be based on the requirements of plants as well as their pollinators since conditions beneficial for plants are not necessarily beneficial for their pollinators and vice versa. The factors affecting the reproductive success (fruit set) of Platanthera bifolia and Platanthera chlorantha and their pollinators in agricultural landscape and woodlands were studied. In the years 2014–2016, we observed and caught moths during the flowering period of Platanthera species (late June–mid July) in four pure P. bifolia, five pure P. chlorantha and nine mixed populations under management or no management in Estonia. We determined pollinator species richness, pollinator abundance, fruit set and visibility of Platanthera plants in each population. We found that pollinator assemblages of P. bifolia and P. chlorantha did not differ between managed and unmanaged sites. Pollinator abundance had an effect on the fruit set of P. bifolia but not on that of P. chlorantha. Presence or absence of management, visibility of plants and rarefied pollinator species richness did not affect the fruit set of either plant species. Pollinator abundance was significantly higher in unmanaged populations of both plant species but rarefied pollinator species richness was higher only in unmanaged populations of P. chlorantha. Based on our findings the recommendations for management of semi-natural grasslands are to promote larger landscape diversity for the benefit of moth abundance by leaving unmanaged patches in different parts of a grassland in different years and rotational and post-fruiting management for higher reproductive success of orchids.